自考英语自学教程上册20-22

20-B. Marriage in Iran and America: A Study in Contrasts
Though marriage is practiced in almost all countries of the world, the customs are quite different from one culture to another. It is interesting for me to compare the customs of marriage in the United States with those in my country.
I've lived in the U.S. for four years now, but I'm still not comfortable with the customs here. In fact, what seems strange to me is that courting or dating is not always for the purpose of finding a husband or wife. Some people seem to do it as a hobby.
Here in the United States, I have noticed that courting is begun by the young couple themselves, and they seem to have a lot of freedom to decide and do what they want. Both young men and women date a number of different people. They do it without the knowledge or help of their parents. In fact, I have known several friends who got married without even telling their parents or other family members.
At the actual wedding ceremony, the father of the bride symbolically gives his daughter to the groom. It's only a custom, I think, because the bride and groom already know each other quite well. The bride and groom stand together in front of the religious leader or government official to be married. The official reads from a short prepared speech and then asks both the man and woman if they are willing to he married to the other. If they both say "yes," and nobody attending the wedding stands up to object, they are declared "man and wife.” It is interesting that the two families are asked if there are any objections right during the ceremony. Perhaps it is because the family members are not as involved in the wedding preparations as they are in Iran.
Marriage is different in a number of ways in my country. In Iran, courting is more serious, and is performed strictly for the purpose of marriage It is definitely not a part of the fun-filled years of growing up like it is here in America. It is the mother of the young man who initiates the process by visiting the home of a potential bride. She goes to inspect the girl, and discover the position and wealth of the girl’s family. If she is pleased, then she will return another day with her son. If her son is also pleased, then the two families get together to talk about the dowry, the wedding ceremony, who they will hire to perform the marriage and other matters.
The actual marriage ceremony is quite different, however, from the American wedding ceremonies I have sewn. The bride, dressy in white, with a veil over her face, sits in a room alone. She sits on a special piece of silk which is surrounded on two sides by very long pieces of flat bread. Two mullahs stand outside the door to this room reading from the Koran. Twice the bride must remain silent to the questions of the mullahs. The groom's mother then presents a gift of gold to show that her side of the family is serious. The bride then responds to the mullahs in much th

e same manner as do Americans when they say "I do." The groom is allowed to go into the bride's room while the mullahs take care of the official marriage papers.
One more difference between the marriage customs of the United States and my country is that the bride does not immediately go to the home of her new husband. For several months, she continues to stay at her own home preparing her dowry and receiving instructions from her mother on how to be a good wife and mother. After a few months, the groom and his relatives come for the bride and take her to his home along with the dowry.
Though I can certainly see the advantages of the freedom that is given to American youths to choose whom they will marry and when, I think I still prefer the customs of my home country. I suppose that’s because there is not so much guessing and uncertainty.　

21-A. The Language of Uncertainty
Uncertainty spreads through our lives so thoroughly that it dominates our language. Our everyday speech is made up in large part of word like probably, many, soon, great, little. What do these words mean? "Atomic war," declared a recent editorial in the London Times, "is likely to destroy forever the nation that wages it. How exactly are we to understand the word likely? Lacking any standard for estimating the probability, we are left with the judgment of the editorial writer.
Such verbal imprecision is not necessarily to be criticised. Indeed, it has a value just because it allows us to express judgments when a precise quantitative statement is out of the question.
The language of uncertainty has three main categories: (1)words such as probably, possibly, surely, which denote a single subjective probability and are potentially quantifiable; (2)words like many, of-ten, goon, which are also quantifiable but denote not so much a condition of uncertainty as a quantity imprecisely known; (3)words like fat, rich, drunk, which can not be reduced to any accepted number because they are given different values by different people.
We have been trying to pin down by experiments what people mean by these expressions in specific contexts, and how the meanings change with age. For instance, a subject is told "There are many trees in the park” and is asked to say what number the word many mean to him. Or a child is invited to take "some" sweets from a bowl and we then count how many he has taken. We compare the number he takes when he is alone with the number when one or more other children are present and are to take some sweets after him, or with the number he takes when told to give "some” sweets to another child.
First, we find that the number depends, of course, on the items involved. To most people some friends means about five, while .some trees means about twenty. However, unrelated areas sometimes show parallel values. For instance, the language of probability seems to mean about the same thing in predictions about t

he weather and about politics: the expression is certain to (rain, or be elected) signifies to the average person about a 70 per cent chance; is likely to, about a 60 per cent chance; probably will, about 55 per cent.
Secondly, the size of the population of items influences the value assigned to an expression. Thus, if we. tell a subject to take "a few" or "a lot of" glass bald from a box, he will take more if the box contains a large number of glass balls than if it has a small number. Hut not prolix>rtionately more: if we increase the number of glass balls eight times, the subject takes only half as large a percentage of the total.
Thirdly, there is a marked change with age. Among children between six and fourteen years old, the older the child, the fewer glass balls he will take. But the difference between a lot and a few widens with age. This age effect is so consistent that it might be used as a test of intelligence. In place of a long test we could merely ask the subject to give numerical values to expressions such as nearly always and very rarely in a given context, and then measure his intelligence by the ratio of the number for nearly always to the one for very rarely. We have found that this ration increases systematically from about 2 to 1 for a child of seven to about 20 to 1 for a person twenty-five years old,


21-B. It Never Rains but It Pours!
An hour before midnight is worth two after or so my mother used to tell me as I sat down to breakfast after a particularly late night. Hut is it really true that sleep before 12 p. m. is twice as good for you as sleep after that hour? At the time, like most young people, I regarded this proverb as an old wive’s tale with no relevance to my own life. I mean, an hour is an hour... it's 60 minutes, a. m. or p. m. However, now older and wiser, I remember my mother's words as t scramble into bed at 11 o'clock. I am now a firm believer in the value of getting at least one hour's sleep before midnight!
Advice about how to live a healthy life is one example of the type of received wisdom which is condensed and passed on to the next generation in the form of proverbs. Proverbs also serve to express general truths in a short and colourful way, for example, There's no smoke without fire, meaning that there is generally some truth in even the wildest rumours.
Another type of proverb acts as a reminder of the correct way to behave, for example, Don ' t wash your dirty linen in public. This means don't discuss personal or family problems in front of strangers or in public. Other proverbs are offered to people as means of comfort in times of trouble, for example, It's no use crying over spilt milk. This proverb advises that it really is a waste of time to weep over mistakes that have already been made. instead, it is much better to Make the best of a bad job - to do your best whatever the situation.
Some English proverbs are native to Britain, for

example, It never rains but it pours, a reference to the joys of the British weather! This proverb means that when one thing goes wrong, many other things go wrong as well. Another home-grown proverb is Every dog is allowed one bite. This proverb is based on an old English law dating back to the 17th century. The law said that the first time a dog bit somebody, its owner did not have to pay compensation o the victim because one bite did not prove that the dog was vicious. Hence the idea carried in the proverb, that everyone should be allowed to make a mistake without being punished for it.
Other proverbs have come into the language from Latin or Greek. Lucretius, a classical Roman author, created the proverb One man's meat is another man's poison, meaning that what is good for one person can be harmful to another. And the proverb Let sleeping dogs lie meaning don't cause trouble when it can be avoided, came into English from the French in the 14th century.
As Britain came into contact with other countries and cultures, English became enriched with the words and wisdom of different languages. From the Chinese, we borrowed the colourful proverb He who rides a tiger is afraid to dismount, meaning that if you start on a dangerous enterprise, it is often easier to carry it through to the end than to stop halfway.
Some proverbs have been in the language for 1, 000 years, for example, A friend in need is a friend indeed. The message here is that someone who stays with you and helps you in times of trouble, rather than turning their back, is a true friend. Other proverb, however, are much more recent, and reflect changes in the way that we live.
From the United States come the following two pieces of new wisdom, Garbage in - garbage out, from the computer world, reminds people that computers are only as good as their programs. From big business we have There's no such thing as a free lunch, meaning nothing is free. If someone buys you lunch, they will expect a favour in return.
Some English people are reluctant to use proverbs in their everyday conversation because they see them as vehicles of too much used wisdom. Nevertheless, proverbs are still quite common in both written and spoken English and continue to provide a homely commentary on life and a reminder that the wisdom of our ancestors may still be useful to us today.

22-A. Current Attitudes toward Physical Fitness
Recently we were told by a student that setting aside time for improving his physical fitness would be a total misuse of his working hours. He assured us that he would be no better served by a fitness program than by learning to play bridge. College and his preparation for a career were his only priorities.
This student has seen being physically fit as an end rather than the means we know it to be. His opinion is one of the many feelings, pro or con, that people hold about their personal involvement in a physical fitness program.
　

　Many people, including college students of all ages, spend little time in pursuit of physical fitness. Certainly some of these individuals may have physical limitations that make activity extremely difficult, and others are engaged in time-consuming activities that until finished do not permit opportunities for recreation. However, what about the majority who could do much more but do so little? Does one of the following statements sound like you?
“I know it's important, but I just don't have time right now.
“I'm already fit, and with my schedule, I'll have no difficulty staying that way.
“I should do more than I do, but I just don’t have facilities and I don't get much support from others.
“Exercise makes me feel terrible. Even when I shower, I get to my next class wet, and probably smelling like a locker room.
Unlike these people who have made no commitment to fitness, you may have made a commitment to a physical fitness program that might be rather narrow in scope. If one of the following comments fits you, perhaps you are failing to see the broader values of maintaining a high level of physical fitness.
“Everyone in the dorm runs at night. That's why I run.”
“For every 3,500 calories I can ‘burn’ during exercise, I' 11 lose a pound of fat. I have only 10 pounds more to drop before Christmas. ”
“This weekend will be cool and nice. Saturday looks like a good day for a personal record.
“Some would say I have a fear of death. Heck, I just want to live a long time.
If you see your own attitude represented by one of these comments, might you be shortsighted in your reason for valuing fitness? We would suggest that you reexamine your approach to fitness and its ability to positively influence other aspects of your life. Ask yourself, "What could I achieve if I were really in top physical condition?” Because fitness levels are easily observed and can be measured, you can quickly start to see the emerging person you are capable of becoming. Almost daily you can see progress and accomplishment. Keep in mind, however, that all people are different and some may progress faster than others. In the final analysis, we think that although fitness will not guarantee that you will live longer, it can help you enjoy the years you do live.

22-B. People and Colors
One person chooses a bright red car, but another prefers a dark green. One family paints the living room a sunny yellow, but another family uses pure white. One child wants a bright orange ball, but another wants a light blue one. Psychologists and businessmen think these differences are important.
In general, people talk about two groups of colors: warm colors and cool colors. Researchers think that there are also two groups of people: people who prefer warm colors and people who prefer cool colors.
The warm colors are red, orange, and yellow. Where there are warm colors and

a lot of light, people usually want to be active. People think that red, for example, is exciting. Sociable people, those who like to be with others, like red. The cool colors are green, blue, and violet. These colors, unlike warm colors, are relaxing. Where there are cool colors, people are usually quiet. People who like to spend time alone often prefer blue.
Red may be exciting, but one researcher says that time seems to pass more slowly in a room with warm colors than in a room with cool colors. He suggests that a warm color, such as red or orange, is a good color for a living room or restaurant. People who are relaxing or eating, do not want time to pass quickly. Cool colors are better for offices or factories if the people who are working there want time to pass quickly.
Researchers do not know why people think some colors are warm and other colors are cool. However, almost everyone agrees that red, orange, and yellow are warm and that green, blue, and violet are cool. Perhaps warm colors remind people of warm days and the cool colors remind them of cool days. Because in the north the sun is low during winter, the sunlight appears quite blue. Because the sun is higher during summer, the hot summer sunlight appears yellow.
People associate colors with different objects, feelings, and holidays. Red, for example, is the color of fire, heat, blood, and life. People say red is an exciting and active color. They associate red with a strong feeling like anger. Red is used for signs of danger, such as STOP signs and fire engines. The holiday which is associated with red is Valentine’s Day. On February 14, Americans send red hearts to people they love.
Orange is the bright, warm color of leaves in autumn. People say orange is a lively, energetic color. They associate orange with happiness. The holidays which are associated with orange are Halloween in October and Thanksgiving Day in November. On October 31 many Americans put large orange pumpkins in their windows for Halloween.
Yellow is the color of sunlight. People say it is a cheerful and lively color. They associate yellow, too, with happiness. Because it is bright, it is used for signs of caution.
Green is the cool color of grass in spring. People say it is a refreshing and relaxing color. Machines in factories are usually painted light green.
Blue is the color of the sky, water, and ice. Police and Navy uniforms are blue. When people are sad, they say “I feel blue.” They associate blue with feelings like unhappiness and fear.
Violet, or purple, is the deep, soft color of darkness or shadows. People consider violet a dignified color. They associate it with loneliness. On Easter Sunday people decorate baskets with purple ribbons.
White is the color of snow. People describe white as a pure, clean color. They associate white with a bright clean feeling. Doctors and nurses normally wear white uniforms. On the other hand, black is

the color of night. People wear black clothes at serious or formal ceremonies.
Businessmen know that people choose products by color. Businessmen want to manufacture products which are the colors people will buy. For example, an automobile manufacturer needs to know how many cars to paint red, how many green, and how many black. Good businessmen know that young people prefer different colors than old people do and men prefer different colors than women do.
Young children react to the color of an object before they react to its shape. They prefer the warm colors - red, yellow, and orange. When people grow older, they begin to react more to the shape of an object than to its color. The favorite color of adults of all countries is blue. Their second favorite color is red, and their third is green.
On the whole, women prefer brighter colors than men do. Almost everyone likes red, but women like yellow and green more than men do. Pink is usually considered a feminine color. Blue is usually considered a masculine color. As a result, people dress baby girls in pink and baby boys in blue. However, it is dangerous to generalize because taste changes. For example, years ago businessmen wore only white shirts; today they wear many different colors, including pink.
If two objects are the same except for color, they will look different. Color can make an object look nearer or farther, larger or smaller. A red object always looks nearer than a blue object. For example, red letters on a blue sign look as though they are in front of the sign. Bright objects look larger than dark objects. However, they are actually the same size. Large or fat people who want to look smaller or slimmer wear dark clothes. When they wear dark clothes, they look smaller and slimmer than they are.
In conclusion, color is very important to people. Warm and cool colors affect how people feel. People choose products by color. Moreover, color affects how an object looks. It is even possible that your favorite color tells a lot about you.