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打印《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章

打印《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章
打印《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章

Chapter I Introduction

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE:

1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language.

2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure.

3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.

4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.

6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.

7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.

8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.

9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.

10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.

11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.

12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.

13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.

14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. 15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.

16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.

17. Social changes can often bring about language changes.

18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.

19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.

20. Synchronic linguistic is the study of a language through the course of its history.

21. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.

22. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.

23. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.

24. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.

25. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.

26. Features that contrast words in meaning are called design features are said to be in complementary distribution.

27. Linguistic symbols are arbitrary.

28. By arbitrariness Saussure means that the forms of linguistic signs bear some natural relationship to their meaning.

II. Fill in each of the following blanks.

1. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d_______.

2. Chomsky defines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.

3. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of

a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.

43. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/e57946220.html,nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.

6. S is the study of language in relation to society.

7. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.

8. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.

9. P ___ _ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

10. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.

11. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard be12

12. Linguistics is generally defined as the s __ __ study of language.

13. To help define and maintain interpersonal relations is the s function of language.

III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1. The description of a language in a fixed instant is a _______ study.

A. synchronic

B. diachronic

C. prescriptive

D. systematic

2. The application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning is called _____.

A. sociolinguistics

B. Psycholinguistics

C. computational linguistics

D. Applied Linguistics

3. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.

A. prescriptive

B. analytic

C. descriptive

D. linguistic

4. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?

A. Arbitrariness

B. Displacement

C. Duality

D. Meaningfulness

5. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.

A. primary

B. correct

C. secondary

D. stable

6. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.

A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing

B. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.

C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue

D. All of the above

7. Many modern linguists have criticized traditional grammarians for adopting a _____ approach to language study.

A. synchronic

B. diachronic

C. prescriptive

D. descriptive

8. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.

A. synchronic

B. diachronic

C. prescriptive

D. comparative

9. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.

A. parole

B. performance

C. langue

D. Language

10. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.

A. sense

B. sounds

C. objects

D. ideas

11. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,

A. displacement

B. duality

C. flexibility

D. cultural transmission

12. The distinction between langue and parole was made by _______ early last century.

A. American linguist N. Chomsky

B. Swiss linguist F. de Saussure

C. American linguist Edward Sapir

D. British linguist J. R. Firth

13. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is .

A. arbitrary

B. rational

C. logical

D. cultural

Chapter 2:Phonology

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:

1. V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.

2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.

3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.

4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.

5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.

6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.

7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.

8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. 9. The sound〔z〕is a voiced alveolar stop.

9. V oicing is a distinctive feature for English consonants.

10. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, then the two words are called minimal pairs. Sip and zip are a minimal pair, as are fine and vine, and veal and leaf.

11. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.

12. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.

13. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.

12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.

13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.

14. The English consonants can be classified in terms of place and manner of articulation.

15. The qualities of vowels depend on the positions of lips.

16. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.

17. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.

18. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.

19. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning.

20. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.

21. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.

22. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.

23. Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.

24. The speech sounds in almost every language can be divided into two major natural classes: consonants and vowels.

25. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.

26. Suprasegmental features are distinctive features of segmental phonemes.

II. Fill in each of the following blanks.

27.A_____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.

28 A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.

29.The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.

30.Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other. 31.English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.

32.When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.

33.S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.

34.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.

35.The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.

36.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.

37.P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.

38. If you say door, new, two, senior, zoo, you will notice that the first sounds in all these words are a_______ sounds. The t and s are voiceless, and d, n and z are voiced. Only n is nasal.

39.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.

40.T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. 41.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.

III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

1. The study of the physical properties of speech sounds is called ________ phonetics.

A. acoustic

B. articulatory

C. auditory

D. allomorphic

2. The sound /f/ is _________________.

A. voiced palatal affricate

B. voiced alveolar stop

C. voiceless velar fricative

D. voiceless labiodental fricative

3.Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.

A. mouth

B. lips

C. tongue

D. vocal cords

4.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.

A. voiceless

B. voiced

C. vowel

D. consonantal

5.__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.

A. /z/

B. /d/

C. /k/

D./b/

6.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.

A. identical

B. same

C. exactly alike

D. similar

7. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.

A. in phonemic contrast

B. in complementary distribution

C. the allophones

D. minimal pair

8.The sound /f/ is _________________.

A. voiced palatal affricate

B. voiced alveolar stop

C. voiceless velar fricative

D. voiceless labiodental fricative

9. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.

A. back

B. central

C. front

D. middle 10. Palatal semi-vowel refers to the sound .

A. [n]

B. [h]

C. [w]

D. [j]

11. A phoneme is a group of phonetically similar sounds called .

A. minimal pairs

B. allomorphs

C. phones

D. allophones

12. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.

A. phonetic components

B. immediate constituents

C. suprasegmental features

D. semantic features

13. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.

A. phone

B. sound

C. allophone

D. phoneme 14.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.

A. phones

B. sounds

C. phonemes

D. allophones

15. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.

A. back

B. central

C. front

D. middle

16. The sounds that begin and end the words church and judge are voiceless and voiced _______, respectively.( C )

A. stops

B. fricatives

C. affricates

D. plosives

Chapter 3:Morphology

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

2. Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.

3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.

4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.

5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.

6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.

7. Almost every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes.

8. The allomorph is an abstract unit.

9. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.

10. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.

11. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.

12. Phonetically, the stress of a compound often falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.

13. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly prefixes.

14. The meaning of a compound is the combination of the meanings of the words in the compound. II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:

1. R is the part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.

2. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.

3. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

4. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.

5. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.

6. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.

7. The word snowfall is a word formed by joining two separate words, i.e. “snow” and “fall.” This newly formed word is generally regarded as a c_______.

III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

1. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.

A. bound morpheme

B. bound form

C. inflectional morpheme

D. free morpheme

2. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.

A. is the sum total of the meaning of its components

B. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemes

C. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.

D. None of the above.

3. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.

A. a derivative affix

B. a stem

C. an inflectional affix

D. a root

4. Which of the following is NOT a compound word?

A. Rainbow

B. Milkshake

C. Icy-cold

D. Unpleasant

5. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.

A. the first element

B. the second element

C. either the first or the second elem

D. both the first and the second elements.

6. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

A. Free morphemes

B. Bound morphemes

C. Bound words

D. Words

7. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

A. Syntax

B. Grammar

C. Morphology

D. Morpheme

8. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.

A. lexical

B. morphemic

C. grammatical

D. semantic

9. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.

A. have to be used independently

B. can not be combined with other morphemes

C. can either be free or bound

D. have to be combined with other morphemes.

10. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.

A. Prefixes

B. Suffixes

C. Roots

D. Affixes

11. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.

A. Words

B. Morphemes

C. Phonemes

D. Sentences

12. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.

A. a derivative affix

B. a stem

C. an inflectional affix

D. a root 13. Which of the following does NOT belong to “open class words”?

A. Nouns

B. Adjectives

C. Conjunctions

D. Adverbs

14. In the word unreliable, the prefix “un-” is a(n) _______ morpheme.

A. free

B. bound

C. root

D. inflectional

15. Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case”, “aspect”, “degree” an d so forth are called morphemes.

A. inflectional

B. bound

C. free

D. derivational

16. The English wo rd “modernizers” is composed of morphemes.

A. four

B. three

C. two

D. five

17. Which of the following affix differs from others?

A. –ly

B. –ness

C. –ing

D. –ful

Chapter 4:Syntax

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.

2. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.

3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.

4. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.

5. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.

6. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.

7. A sentence can’t have more than one deep structure.

8. The structure that occurs after movement takes place is what we term as surface structure.

9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.

10. A noun phrase contains a noun, while other elements are optional.

11. Words in a sentence are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech.

12. Chomsky made a distinction between two levels of structures: surface and deep structures.

13. Transformational-generative grammar was first suggested by Noam Chomsky.

Chapter 5 Semantics

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.

2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.

3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.

4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.

5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.

6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.

7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.

8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.

9. The predication analysis of a sentence only applies to statements and interrogative forms.

II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:

1. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.

2. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.

3. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

4. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.

5. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.

6. Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called r_______ opposites.

7. What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to is the r__________ meaning of a word.

8. R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.

9. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.

10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.

11. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.

III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.

A. Plato

B. Bloomfield

C. Geoffrey Leech

D. Firth

2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.

A. the conceptualist view

B. contexutalism

C. the naming theory

D. behaviourism

3. Which of the following is not true?

A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.

B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.

C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.

D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.

4. “Can I borrow your bike?” _______ “ You have a bike.”

A. is synonymous with

B. is inconsistent with

C. entails

D. presupposes

5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.

A. Predication analysis

B. Componential analysis

C. Phonemic analysis

D. Grammatical analysis 6. “alive” and “dead” are ______________.

A. gradable antonyms

B. relational opposites

C. complementary antonyms

D. none of the above

7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

A. Reference

B. Concept

C. Semantics

D. Sense

8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.

A. Polysemy

B. Synonymy

C. Homonymy

D. Hyponymy

9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.

A. homonyms

B. polysemy

C. hyponyms

D. synonyms

10. The kind of antonymy between "married "and "single" is one of __________

A converse

B relational

C complementary

D gradable

11. According to the componential analysis, the word “girl” and “woman” differ in the feature of _______.

A. HUMNAN

B. ANIMATE

C. MALE

D. ADULT

12. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.

A. grammatical rules

B. selectional restrictions

C. semantic rules

D. semantic features

13. The words stationary and stationery are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning. They are _______.

A. complete homonyms

B. homographs

C. hyponyms

D. homophones

14. In the following pairs of words, are a pair of complementary antonyms.

A. old and young

B. male and female

C. hot and cold

D. buy and sell

15. The relationship between “violet” and “tulip” is ________.

A. co-hyponyms

B. superordinate

C. hyponyms

D. antonyms

16. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”

A. is synonymous with

B. is inconsistent with

C. entails

D. presupposes

Chapter 6:Pragmatics

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication

2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.

3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.

4. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.

5. Sentence meaning is abstract but context-dependent.

6. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.

7. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences

8. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.

9. Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s of the 20th Century.

II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:

1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.

3. All the speech acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same i_______ point, but they differ in their strength or force.

4. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an u___________.

5. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontextualized.

6. C________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.

7. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.

8. A l_________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

9. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.

10. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.

11. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.

III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

1. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.

A. Pragmatics

B. Semantics

C. Sense relation

D. Concept

2. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.

A. contextual

B. behaviouristic

C. intrinsic

D. logical

3. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.

A. reference

B. speech act

C. practical usage

D. context

4. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.

A. pragmatic

B. grammatical

C. mental

D. conceptual

5. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.

A. constative

B. directive

C. utterance

D. expressive

6. Which of the following is true?

A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.

B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.

C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.

D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.

7. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.

A. in the late 50’s of the 20the century

B. in the early 1950’s

C. in the late 1960’s

D. in the early 21st century.

8. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.

A. A locutionary act

B. An illocutionary act

C. A perlocutionary act

D. A performative act

9. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.

A. to get the hearer to do something

B. to commit the speaker to something’s being the case

C. to commit the speaker to some future course of action

D. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.

10. __________ is advanced by Paul Grice

A. Cooperative Principle

B. Politeness Principle

C. The General Principle of Universal Grammar

D. Adjacency Principle 11. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.

A. impoliteness

B. contradictions

C. mutual understanding

D. conversational implicature

12. The illocutionary point of _______ is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance.

A. directives

B. expressives

C. commissives

D. representatives

13. found that natural language had its own logic and thus concluded the famous Cooperative Principle.

A. John Austin

B. John Firth

C. Paul Grice

D. William Jones

14. As far as the sentence “My bag is heavy” is concerned, linguists of pragmatics are more interested in its ______ meaning.

A. literal

B. logical

C. utterence

D. sentence

15. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether, in the study of meaning, _________ is considered.

A. reference

B. speech act

C. practical usage

D. context

16. A: What do you think of Mr. Zhang?

B: A fine day, isn’t it?

In the dialogue between A and B, B’s answer flouts which of the four maxims of CP?

A. The maxim of quantity

B. The maxim of quality

C. The maxim of manner

D. The maxim of relation

最新中药药剂学第七章浸出制剂习题03药剂

第七章浸出制剂 [X型题] 1.浸出药剂具有以下(ABC )特点 A符合中医辨证施治的要求 B减少服用剂量 C常以水或不同浓度的乙醇为溶剂 D制剂稳定性好 E临床用于内服 注解:浸出制剂是复合组分组成,表达的是综合疗效,符合中医辨证施治的要求;对中药材进行了提取及精制过程,去除了大量无效杂质及组织物质,因此服用剂量减少;常以水或不同浓度的乙醇为溶剂;某些浸出制剂稳定性较差,如汤剂、糖浆剂等;临床除用于内服外,还可外用,如酊剂。 2.以下制剂(ABCDE )属于浸出制剂 A益母草膏 B玉屏风口服液 C午时茶 D远志酊 E十滴水 注解:益母草膏为煎膏剂,玉屏风口服液为口服液,午时茶为茶剂;远志酊与十滴水均为酊剂,因此上述均为浸出制剂。 3.关于煮散的叙述正确的是(ACD ) A煮散实际就是汤剂的一种用药形式 B煮散又称为“饮” C比一般汤剂节约药材 D比一般汤剂节约煎煮时间 E价格偏高 注解:汤剂是指药材饮片或粗粒加水煎煮或沸水浸泡后去渣取汁而得到的液体制剂。以药材粗颗粒入药者,习称为“煮散”,因此煮散实际就是汤剂的一种用药形式。煮散不同于“饮”,“饮”是指沸水泡药不定时饮用者,俗称为“饮”。由于煮散以药材粗颗粒入药,浸出面积增大,根据Fick’s扩散定律,利于浸出,因此将比一般汤剂节约药材、节约煎煮时间,也正因为此无形中会降低每剂药的价格。 4.关于中药口服液与中药合剂的叙述正确的是(BE ) A中药口服液就是中药合剂,中药合剂就是中药口服液 B是在汤剂的基础上发展来的 C 是在糖浆剂的基础上发展来的 D可以根据临床辨证施治,随症加减,应用灵活 E中药口服液一般采用100℃流通蒸汽灭菌30min 注解:中药合剂与口服液是在汤剂的基础上发展来的,但并没有保留汤剂随症加减,因为其已经实现工业生产,处方固定;中药口服液就是中药合剂,中药合剂不是中药口服液,中药口服液是单剂量包装的合剂。

《药剂学》试题及答案(20200625135839)

药剂学习题 第一篇药物剂型概论 第一章绪论 一、单项选择题【 A 型题】 1. 药剂学概念正确的表述是() A、研究药物制剂的处方理论、制备工艺和合理应用的综合性技术科学 B研究药物制剂的基本理论、处方设计、制备工艺和合理应用的综合性技术科学 C、研究药物制剂的处方设计、基本理论和应用的技术科学 D、研究药物制剂的处方设计、基本理论和应用的科学 E、研究药物制剂的基本理论、处方设计和合理应用的综合性技术科学 2. 既可以经胃肠道给药又可以经非胃肠道给药的剂型是() A. 合剂 B. 胶囊剂 C. 气雾剂 D. 溶液剂 E. 注射剂 3. 靶向制剂属于() . 第一代制剂B. 第二代制剂C. 第三代制剂 D. 第四代制剂 E.第五代制剂 4. 药剂学的研究不涉及的学科() A. 数学 B. 化学 C.经济学 D.生物学 E. 微生物学 5. 注射剂中不属于处方设计的有() A. 加水量 B. 是否加入抗氧剂 C. pH如何调节 D.药物水溶性好坏 E. 药物的粉碎方法 6. 哪一项不属于胃肠道给药剂型() A. 溶液剂 B. 气雾剂 C. 片剂 D.乳剂 E.散剂 7. 关于临床药学研究内容不正确的是() A. 临床用制剂和处方的研究 B. 指导制剂设 计、剂型改革 C.药物制剂的临床研究和评价 D. 药剂的生物利用度研究 E. 药剂质量的临床监控 8. 按医师处方专为某一患者调制的,并明确指明用法和用量的药剂称为() A. 药品 B. 方剂 C. 制剂 D. 成药 E. 以上均不是 9. 下列关于剂型的表述错误的是() A、剂型系指为适应治疗或预防的需要而制备的不同给药形式 B、同一种剂型可以有不同的药物 C、同一药物也可制成多种剂型 D、剂型系指某一药物的具体品种 E、阿司匹林片、扑热息痛片、麦迪霉素片、尼莫地平片等均为片剂剂型 10. 关于剂型的分类,下列叙述错误的是( A、溶胶剂为液体剂型B C、栓剂为半固体剂型D E、气雾剂、吸入粉雾剂为经呼吸道给药剂型) 、软膏剂为半固体剂型 、气雾剂为气体分散型

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药剂学习题及答案 第一章绪论 1.剂型、制剂、药剂学的概念是什么? 2. 什么是处方药与非处方药() 3. 什么是、与? 第二章液体制剂 1.液体制剂的按分散系统如何分类? 2.液体制剂的定义和特点是什么? 3.液体制剂的质量要求有哪些? 4.液体制剂常用附加剂有哪些?何为潜溶剂? 5.何为絮凝,加入絮凝剂的意义何在? 6.乳剂和混悬剂的特点是什么? 7.用公式描述影响沉降的因素,并说明加入高分子助悬剂具有哪些作用? 8.乳化剂的作用如何?如何选择乳化剂? 9.乳剂的稳定性及其影响因素? 10.简述增加药物溶解度的方法有哪些? 11.简述助溶和增溶的区别? 12.什么是胶束?形成胶束有何意义? 13.表面活性剂分哪几类,在药剂中主要有哪几个作用? 第三章灭菌制剂与无菌制剂 1.影响湿热灭菌的因素有哪些? 2.常用的除菌过滤器有哪些? 3.灭菌参数F和F0值的意义和适用范围? 4.洁净室的净化标准怎样? 5.注射剂的定义和特点是什么? 6.注射剂的质量要求有哪些?

7.纯化水、注射用水、灭菌注射用水的区别? 8.热原的定义及组成是什么? 9.热原的性质有哪些?各国药典检查热原的法定方法是什么? 10.简述污染热原的途径及去除热原的方法。 11.注射剂等渗的调节方法及调节等张的意义。 12.制备安瓶的玻璃有几种?各适合于什么性质的药液? 13.输液按规定的灭菌条件灭菌后,为什么还会出现染菌现象? 14.输液常出现澄明度问题,简述微粒产生的原因及解决的方法。 第四~五章固体制剂 1.散剂的概念、制备方法与质量要求。 2.用什么方程来描述药物的溶出速度?改善药物溶出速度的方法有哪些? 3.什么是功指数? 4.影响物料均匀混合的因素有哪些?如何达到均匀混合? 5.片剂的概念和特点是什么? 6.片剂的可分哪几类?各自的特点? 7.片剂常用的辅料有哪些?可用于粉末直接压片的辅料有哪些? 8.湿法制粒的方法有哪些?各自的特点? 9.片剂产生裂片的主要原因及解决的方法。 10.片剂的包衣的目的何在? 11.片剂的成形及其影响因素。 12.简述片剂制备中可能发生的问题及原因。 13.物料水分的性质。 14.片剂的质量要求有哪些? 15.胶囊剂的概念、分类与特点是什么? 16.空胶囊的组成与规格。 17.滴丸剂的概念,它与软胶囊有何区别? 第六章半固体制剂、栓剂与膜剂

药剂学电子书第五版(第七章 散剂)

第七章散剂、颗粒剂、胶囊剂 第一节固体制剂概述 本章与下一章介绍的是常用的固体剂型。在这里,我们首先以片剂为例,介绍一些有关固体剂型的共性问题:显然,某片剂在规定的时间内未能溶出规定量的药物(称为溶出度不合格),该片剂将无法发挥其应有的疗效,也就是说,片剂口服后,必须经过崩解、溶出、吸收等几个过程,其中任何一个环节发生问题都将影响药物的实际疗效。上述几个过程可以图解如下: 片剂──→崩解(裂碎成小颗粒)──→药物从小颗粒中溶出──→胃肠液中的药物溶液──→药物从胃肠粘膜吸收进入血液循环──→分布于各个组织器官──→发挥治疗作用 未崩解的片剂,其表面积十分有限,溶出量很小,溶出速度也很慢;崩解后,形成了众多的小颗粒,所以总表面积急剧增加,药物的溶出量和溶出速度一般也会大大加快。 对于片剂和多数固体剂型(如散剂、胶囊剂等)来说,下述Noyes-Whitney方程可说明剂型中药物溶出的规律。Noyes-Whitney方程的形式是: dC/dt = k S Cs 式中:dC/dt──溶出速度;k──溶出速度常数;S──溶出质点暴露于介质的表面积;Cs──药物的溶解度。 上式表明,药物从固体剂型中的溶出速度与溶出速度常数k、药物粒子的表面积S、药物的溶解度Cs成正比。故而可采取以下一些的方法来加以改善药物的溶出速度: ①可采用药物微粉化的方法来增加表面积S,从而加快药物的溶出速度。 ②制备研磨混合物:疏水性药物单独粉碎时,随着粒径的减小,表面自由能增大,粒子易发生重新聚集的现象,粉碎的实际效率不高,与此同时,这种疏水性的药物粒径减小、比表面积增大,会使片剂的疏水性增强,不利于片剂的崩解和溶出。如果将这种疏水性的药物与大量的水溶性辅料共同研磨粉碎制成混合物,则药物与辅料的粒径都可以降低到很小,又由于辅料的量多,所以在细小的药物粒子周围吸附着大量水溶性辅料的粒子,这样就可以防止细小药物粒子的相互聚集,使其稳定地存在于混合物中;当水溶性辅料溶解时,细小的

药剂学重点

第一章 (一)1.剂型:是指根据不同给药方式和不同给药部位等要求将药物制成的不同“形态”。 2.药剂学:是将原料制备成用于治疗、诊断、预防疾病所需药物制剂的一门科学。即以药物制剂为中心研究其基本理论、处方设计、制备工艺、质量控制和合理应用的综合性应用技术科学 (二)1.药剂学的宗旨是制备安全、有效、稳定、使用方便的药物制剂 2.药用高分子材料学:主要研究对象是没有药理活性、无毒的合成和天然的高分子材料 3.生物药剂学:研究药物在体内的吸收、分布、代谢与排泄的机制及过程,阐明药物因素、剂型因素和生理因素与药效之间的关系,为合理设计剂型和制剂处方以及制备工艺等提供依据,使制剂产品的生物利用度最大限度地发挥 (三)药物剂型的分类 1.按给药途径分类:口服给药剂型、口腔内给药剂型、注射给药剂型、呼吸道给药剂型、皮肤给药剂型、眼部给药剂型、鼻粘膜给药剂型、直肠给药剂型、阴道给药剂型、耳部给药剂型、透析给药剂型 2.按分散系统分类:溶液型、胶体型、乳剂型、混悬型、气体分散型、微粒分散型、固体分散型 3.按形态分类:液体剂型、气体剂型、固体剂型、半固体剂型 (四)1.药用辅料系:是指生产药物制剂时使用的赋形剂或附加剂,是除活性成分以外,含在药物制剂中的所有物质。 2.药剂学中使用辅料的目的:使剂型具有形态特征、使制备过程顺利进行、提高药物的稳定性、调节有效成分的作用部位作用时间或满足生理要求 (五)药典:是一个国家记载药品标准、规格的法典,一般由国家药典委员会组织编纂、出版,并由政府颁布、执行,具有法律约束力。 第二章 (一)1.药用溶剂的种类:水、非水溶剂 2.非水溶剂:醇与多元醇类、醚类、酰胺类、酯类、植物油类、烃类、亚砜类 (二)1.溶解度:指在一定温度(气体在一定压力)下,在一定量溶剂中达到饱和时溶解的最大药量,是反映药物溶解性的重要指标 2.影响药物溶解度的因素及增加药物溶解度的方法(选择): (1)药物的分子结构; (2)溶剂化作用与水合作用; (3)晶型; (4)溶剂化物; (5)粒子大小; (6)温度; (7)pH与同离子效应; (8)混合溶剂; (9)添加物 3. 影响药物溶出速度的因素和增加溶出速度的方法 (1)固体的粒径和表面积 (2)温度 (3)溶出介质的性质 (4)溶出介质的体积 (5)扩散系数 6、扩散层的厚度

第3章 聚类分析答案

第三章 聚类分析 一、填空题 1.在进行聚类分析时,根据变量取值的不同,变量特性的测量尺度有以下三种类型: 间隔尺度 、 顺序尺度 和 名义尺度 。 2.Q 型聚类法是按___样品___进行聚类,R 型聚类法是按_变量___进行聚类。 3.Q 型聚类统计量是____距离_,而R 型聚类统计量通常采用_相似系数____。 4.在聚类分析中,为了使不同量纲、不同取值范围的数据能够放在一起进行比较,通常需要对原始数据进行变换处理。常用的变换方法有以下几种:__中心化变换_____、__标准化变换____、____规格化变换__、__ 对数变换 _。 5.距离ij d 一般应满足以下四个条件:对于一切的i,j ,有0≥ij d 、 j i =时,有0=ij d 、对于一切的i,j ,有ji ij d d =、对于一切的i,j,k ,有kj ik ij d d d +≤。 6.相似系数一般应满足的条件为: 若变量i x 与 j x 成比例,则1±=ij C 、 对一 1≤ij 和 对一切的i,j ,有ji ij C C =。 7.常用的相似系数有 夹角余弦 和 相关系数 两种。 8.常用的系统聚类方法主要有以下八种: 最短距离法 、最长距离法、中间距离法、重心法、类平均法、可变类平均法、可变法、离差平方和法。 9.快速聚类在SPSS 中由__K-mean_____________过程实现。 10.常用的明氏距离公式为:()q p k q jk ik ij x x q d 11?? ????-=∑=,当1=q 时,它表示 绝 对距离 ;当2=q 时,它表示 欧氏距离 ;当q 趋于无穷时,它表示 切比雪夫距离 。 11.聚类分析是将一批 样品 或 变量 ,按照它们在性质上 的 亲疏、相似程度 进行分类。 12.明氏距离的缺点主要表现在两个方面:第一 明氏距离的值与各指标的量纲有关 ,第二 明氏距离没有考虑到各个指标(变量)之间的相关性 。 13.马氏距离又称为广义的 欧氏距离 。 14,设总体G 为p 维总体,均值向量为()'p μμμμ,, ,= 21,协差阵为∑,则样品()'=p X X X X ,,,21 与总体G 的马氏距离定义为 ()()()μμ-∑'-=-X X G X d 12,。 15.使用离差平方和法聚类时,计算样品间的距离必须采用 欧氏距离 。 16.在SPSS 中,系统默认定系统聚类方法是 类平均法 。 17.在系统聚类方法中, 中间距离法和 重心法 不具有单调性。 18.离差平方和法的基本思想来源于 方差分析 。 19.最优分割法的基本步骤主要有三个:第一,定义类的直径 ;第二, 定义目标函数 ;第三, 求最优分割 。 20.最优分割法的基本思想是基于 方差分析的思想 。 二、判断题 1.在对数据行进中心化变换之后,数据的均值为0,而协差阵不变,且变换后后的数据与变量的量纲无关。 ( ) 2.根据分类的原理,我们可以把聚类分为样品聚类和变量聚类。 ( )

第3章 聚类分析答案

第三章 聚类分析 一、填空题 1.在进行聚类分析时,根据变量取值的不同,变量特性的测量尺度有以下三种类型: 间隔尺度 、 顺序尺度 和 名义尺度 。 2.Q 型聚类法是按___样品___进行聚类,R 型聚类法是按_变量___进行聚类。 3.Q 型聚类统计量是____距离_,而R 型聚类统计量通常采用_相似系数____。 4.在聚类分析中,为了使不同量纲、不同取值范围的数据能够放在一起进行比较,通常需要对原始数据进行变换处理。常用的变换方法有以下几种:__中心化变换_____、__标准化变换____、____规格化变换__、__ 对数变换 _。 5.距离ij d 一般应满足以下四个条件:对于一切的i,j ,有0≥ij d 、 j i =时,有 0=ij d 、对于一切的i,j ,有ji ij d d =、对于一切的i,j,k ,有kj ik ij d d d +≤。 6.相似系数一般应满足的条件为: 若变量i x 与 j x 成比例,则1±=ij C 、 对一 1≤ij 和 对一切的i,j ,有ji ij C C =。 7.常用的相似系数有 夹角余弦 和 相关系数 两种。 8.常用的系统聚类方法主要有以下八种: 最短距离法 、最长距离法、中间距离法、重心法、类平均法、可变类平均法、可变法、离差平方和法。 @ 9.快速聚类在SPSS 中由__K-mean_____________过程实现。 10.常用的明氏距离公式为:()q p k q jk ik ij x x q d 11?? ????-=∑=,当1=q 时,它表示 绝 对距离 ;当2=q 时,它表示 欧氏距离 ;当q 趋于无穷时,它表示 切比雪夫距离 。 11.聚类分析是将一批 样品 或 变量 ,按照它们在性质上 的 亲疏、相似程度 进行分类。 12.明氏距离的缺点主要表现在两个方面:第一 明氏距离的值与各指标的量纲有关 ,第二 明氏距离没有考虑到各个指标(变量)之间的相关性 。 13.马氏距离又称为广义的 欧氏距离 。 14,设总体G 为p 维总体,均值向量为()' p μμμμ,, ,= 21,协差阵为∑,则样品()' =p X X X X ,,,21 与总体G 的马氏距离定义为 ()()()μμ-∑' -=-X X G X d 12,。 15.使用离差平方和法聚类时,计算样品间的距离必须采用 欧氏距离 。 16.在SPSS 中,系统默认定系统聚类方法是 类平均法 。 17.在系统聚类方法中, 中间距离法和 重心法 不具有单调性。 18.离差平方和法的基本思想来源于 方差分析 。 , 19.最优分割法的基本步骤主要有三个:第一,定义类的直径 ;第二, 定义目标函数 ;第三, 求最优分割 。 20.最优分割法的基本思想是基于 方差分析的思想 。 二、判断题 1.在对数据行进中心化变换之后,数据的均值为0,而协差阵不变,且变换后后的数据与变量的量纲无关。 ( )

第11章 聚类分析

第11章聚类分析 摘要:聚类分析(cluster analysis)是物以类聚的一种统计分析方法。用于对事物类别的面貌尚不清楚,甚至在事前连总共有几类都不能确定的情况下进行分类的场合。 §11.1 聚类分析概述 聚类分析是用于对个体进行分类的方法。根据分析对象的不同可将其分为样品聚类和变量聚类。 1.样品聚类 俗话说:“物以类聚,人以群分”,对研究对象可根据不同的特征进行分类。这里所说的特征就是反映研究对象特点的各种变量的值。用SAS中的术语来说,样品聚类就是对观测值进行分类。样品聚类是进行判别分析之前的必要工作。根据样品聚类的结果进行判别分析,得出判别函数.进而可对其他研究对象属于何类作出判断。 2.变量聚类 一般来说,可以反映研究对象特点的变量有许多,而且由于对客观事物的认识有限,往往难以找出彼此独立且有代表性的变量,而影响对问题进一步的认识和研究。例如在回归分析中,由于自变量间的共线性而导致偏回归系数不能真正反映自变量对因变量的影响,等等。因此往往需要先进行变量聚类,找出相互独立的、有代表性的自变量,而又不丢失大部分信息。 无论哪种聚类分析所得出的结果都是为了某种目的所做的工作,并不是去寻找自然真实的类。 聚类方法大致可归纳如下: ①系统聚类法:先将n个元素(样品或变量)看成n类,然后将性质最接近(或相似程度最大)的2类合并为一个新类,得到n-1类,再从中找出最接近的2类加以合并变成了n-2类,如此下去,最后所有的元素全聚在一类之中。 ②分解法:其程序与系统聚类相反,首先所有的元素均在一类,然后用某种最优准则将它分成2类,再用同样准则将这2类各自试图分裂为2类,从中选1个使目标函数较好者,这样由2类变成了3类。如此下去,一直分裂到每类中只有1个元素为止,有时即使是同一种聚类方法,因聚类形式(即距离的定义方法)不同而有不同的停止规则。 ③动态聚类法:开始将n个元素粗糙地分成若干类,然后用某种最优准则进行调整,一次又一次地调整,直至不能调整时为止。

药剂学课后习题答案

药剂学——第一章散剂、颗粒剂和胶囊剂(注意:蓝的是答案,红的是改正的) 三、分析题 1.通过比较散剂、颗粒剂及胶囊剂的制备,分析它们的作用特点? 2.举例分析在散剂处方配制过程中,混合时可能遇到的问题及应采取的相应措施。 同步测试参考答案 一、单项选择题 1.D 2.C 3.B 4.B 5.B 6.A 7.C 8.D 9.C 10.A 二、多项选择题 1.AC 2.BC 3.ABCD 4.AC 5.ABC 6.ABCD 7.ABC 8.BC 三、分析题 1.答: 制备过程作用特点 散剂粉碎过筛混合分剂量质量检查包装优点:粉末状,制法简单、剂量可随意增减、易分散、 奏效快。缺点:稳定性较差、分剂量较为麻烦。 颗粒剂药物制软材制粒干燥整粒包衣质量检查分剂量包装优点:颗粒状,体积小、重量轻,易于运输和携带,服用方便。缺点:包装不严密、易潮解 胶囊剂硬胶囊空胶囊的选择药物的填充优点:胶囊,外表整洁、美观、较散剂易吞服;可掩 盖药味、提高药物稳定性、可定时定位释放。缺点: 软胶囊所需仪器设备较昂贵 软胶囊1.滴制法2.压制法 关键字:粉末状,颗粒状,胶囊,起效快,稳定性较差,肠溶,缓释,控释,应用广泛,稳定性较好,服用方便 2.答:混合时可能遇到问题有固体物料的密度差异较大时,先加密度小的再加密度大的,颜色差异较大时先加色深再加色浅的,混合比例悬殊时按等量递加法混合,混合中的液化或润湿时,应针对不同的情况解决,若是吸湿性很强药物(如胃蛋白酶等)在配制时吸潮,应在低于其临界相对湿度以下的环境下配制,迅速混合,密封防潮;若混合后引起吸湿性增强,则可分别包装。 关键字:固体物料,密度差异,密度小,密度大,颜色差异,色深,色浅,混合比例,等量递加法,润湿,液化,吸湿性很强,临界相对湿度,密封防潮,分别包装。 药剂学——第二章片剂 同步测试答案 一、单项选择题 1.B 2.B 3.D 4.B 5.C 6.A 7. D 8.B 9.C 10.B 二、多项选择题 1.ABC 2.ABCD 3.BCD 4.ABD 5.ABCD 6.ABCD 7.BD 8.BCD 9.BD 10.AB 三、处方分析题 1. 硝酸甘油主药,17%淀粉浆黏合,硬脂酸镁润滑,糖粉、乳糖可作填充、崩解、黏合 2. 红霉素主药,淀粉填充、崩解,10%淀粉浆黏合 药剂学——第三章液体制剂 四、计算题 用45%司盘60(HLB=4.7)和55%吐温60(HLB=14.9)组成的混合表面活性剂的HLB值是多少? 同步测试答案 一、单项选择题 1.D 2.D 3.B 4.A 5.C 6.B 7.B 8.A 9.B 10.B 11.C 12.C 13.A 14.C 15.C 二、多项选择题

药剂学复习题-1

药剂学复习题-1

药物制剂复习题 第一章绪论 1.药剂学的概念。 2.生物药剂学分类系统将药物分为哪几类? 3.GMP/GLP/GCP的英文全称及含义。 4.处方药和非处方药在使用上的主要区别及相关规定。 第二章固体制剂 1.常用粉碎设备、特点及其适用性。 2.混合的原则和注意事项。 3.散剂的特点及制备工艺过程。 4.倍散的概念及制备要点。 5.颗粒剂的特点、质量要求。 6.胶囊剂的特点、常用辅料,有哪些药物不适用。 7.滴丸剂的特点及常用辅料,基质和冷凝液如何选择。 8.片剂常用辅料有哪几类,所起作用,代表性的几种辅料的特点。比淀粉 崩解作用强的崩解剂有哪些?崩解剂的加入方法有几种? 9.以湿法制粒制备片剂的工艺过程。 10.不稳定药物采用湿法制粒压片时可采用哪些方法。 11.片剂制备时常见问题、原因及解决办法。 12.写出药物从固体中的溶出速度方程(Noyes-Whitney),并据此提出采用 何种措施来提高药物的溶出度。 13.普通片剂的质量检查项目有哪些,具体规定如何。素片、薄膜衣、糖衣 和肠溶衣的崩解度有何要求? 14.片剂包衣的目的、种类、常用衣材及包衣液的组成。 15.典型药物片剂的处方、制备工艺、注意事项。 16.粉体的流动性、吸湿性、润湿性常用的表示方法,与制剂生产过程及其 质量有何关系? 第三章半固体及其他 1.软膏剂基质的种类及其特点,每种列举两个。 2.软膏剂处方分析与制备过程,不同性质药物加入方法。 3.眼膏剂基质基本组成,灭菌方法,眼膏剂的特殊质量要求。

4.常用的栓剂基质有哪些?为什么可可豆脂通常应缓缓低温加热升温,待 熔化至 2/3 时停止加热,让余热使其完全熔化? 5.置换价的概念及计算。 6.栓剂直肠吸收途径有哪些。 7.对起全身治疗作用的栓剂,影响药物吸收的因素有哪些,与口服相比有 何优点。 8.气雾剂的分类,特点,及组成。 9.溶液型、混悬型和乳剂型气雾剂设计要点。 10.抛射剂的作用,分类。 第四章液体制剂 1、常用防腐剂有哪些?有何特点? 2、常用矫味剂有哪几类?举例说明。 3、增加药物溶解度的方法有哪些?影响因素是什么? 4、助溶剂、增溶剂、潜溶剂的概念解释,并举例说明。 5、哪些情况下考虑将药物制成混悬剂? 6、混悬剂的稳定剂有哪几类,作用何在? 7、絮凝和反絮凝的概念解释。 8、根据Stoke’s定律,提出延缓混悬微粒沉降速率的措施。 9、写出乳剂的基本构成及其分类。 10、制备乳剂常用方法有哪些? 11、影响乳剂稳定性的因素有哪些? 12、乳剂存在哪些不稳定现象? 13、乳化剂按性质不同分为哪几类?O/W 型和 W/O 型乳化剂主要有哪些?其 HLB 值范围是多少? 14、简述表面活性剂的类型、在药剂学中的应用。 15、高分子化合物的溶解过程是怎样的? 16、溶胶具有哪些特殊性质? 17、简述流变学在混悬剂中的应用。 第五章灭菌与无菌制剂 1.注射用水的定义、制备方法、贮存和使用注意事项。原水如何处理?注 射用水与蒸馏水有何区别?

第12章 聚类分析

第12章 聚类分析
12.1 聚类分析简介 12.2 聚类分析中的数据类型 12.3 主要聚类分析方法 聚类分析是数据分析中的一种重要技术,它 的应用极为广泛。许多领域中都会涉及聚类 分析方法的应用与研究工作,如数据挖掘、 统计学、机器学习、模式识别、生物学、空 间数据库技术、电子商务等。
《数据仓库与数据挖掘》 P2
12.1 聚类(Clustering)分析简介
聚类(Clustering)分析是对物理的或抽象的对象集合分 组的过程。 聚类是将数据对象分组成多个簇(Cluster),同一个簇内 部的任意两个对象之间具有较高的相似度,而属于不同簇 的两个对象间具有较高的相异度。相异度可以根据描述对 象的属性值计算,对象间的距离是最常采用的度量指标。
? 聚类就是把整个数据分成不同的组,并使组与组之间的差距尽可能
大,组内数据的差异尽可能小。
? 在许多应用中,可以将一个簇中的对象作为一个整体来对待。
典型应用
? 作为一个独立的分析工具,用于了解数据的分布; ? 作为其它算法的一个数据预处理步骤。
《数据仓库与数据挖掘》
P3
聚类问题的数学描述
给定数据集合V,根据数据对象间的相似程度将数 据集合分成组,并满足: {Ci| 1,2,..., k} Ci?V Ci∩ Cj=φ ∪Ci=V (i=1…k) 则该过程称为聚类。Ci称为簇。 一个好的聚类方法要能产生高质量的聚类结果—簇 ,这些簇要具备以下两个特点:
? 高的簇内相似性 ? 低的簇间相异性
《数据仓库与数据挖掘》 P4
统计学的观点-聚类分析
从统计学的观点看,聚类分析是通过数据建 模简化数据的一种方法。 传统的统计聚类分析方法包括系统聚类法、 分解法、加入法、动态聚类法、有序样品聚 类、有重叠聚类和模糊聚类等。 采用k-均值、k-中心点等算法的聚类分析工 具已被加入到许多著名的统计分析软件包中 ,如SPSS、SAS等。
《数据仓库与数据挖掘》
P5
机器学习的角度-聚类分析
从机器学习的角度讲,簇相当于隐藏模式,聚类是搜索簇 的无监督学习过程。
? 没有预先指定的类别
应用角度-聚类分析
从实际应用的角度看,聚类分析是数据挖掘的主要 任务之一。 就数据挖掘功能而言,聚类能够作为一个独立的工 具获得数据的分布状况,观察每一簇数据的特征, 集中对特定的聚簇集合作进一步地分析。 聚类分析还可以作为其他数据挖掘任务(如分类、 关联规则)的预处理步骤。 数据挖掘领域主要研究面向大型数据库、数据仓库 的高效实用的聚类分析算法。
聚类与分类区别:
? 与分类不同,在开始聚集之前用户并不知道要把数据分成几组,也
不知分组的具体标准,聚类分析时数据集合的特征是未知的。
? 聚类根据一定的聚类规则,将具有某种相同特征的数据聚在一起,
是典型无监督学习;它不需要依赖预先定义的类或带类标记的训练 实例,需要由聚类学习算法自动确定样本标记。
? 分类用户则知道数据可分为几类,将要处理的数据按照分类器分入
不同的类别,是典型有监督学习;分类学习的实例或数据对象有类 别标记。
聚类是观察式学习,而不是示例式的学习。
《数据仓库与数据挖掘》
P6
《数据仓库与数据挖掘》
P7
1

药剂学-第1章

第一章绪论 药剂学的概念药剂学(Pharmaceutics)是研究药物制剂的基本理论、处方设计、制备工艺和合理应用的综合性技术科学。 概念内涵 1.药剂学所研究的对象是药物制剂; 2.研究内容是关于药物制剂的基本理论、处方设计、制备工艺和合理应用等; 3.药剂学是一门综合性技术科学。 基本概念 药物药物是有目的地用于诊断、缓解、治愈或预防人类或动物疾病的物质。 药物剂型(Dosage form) 为适应治疗或预防的需要而制备的不同给药形式,称为药物剂型,简称剂型。同一种剂型可以有不同的药物,同一种药物也可以制成多种剂型。 药物制剂(Preperations)为适应治疗或预防的需要而制备的不同给药形式的具体品种,称为药物制剂,简称制剂 研究内容:基本理论,处方设计,制备工艺,合理用药 药剂学的宗旨是制备安全、有效、稳定、使用方便的药物制剂。 涉及学科药剂学的研究涉及到许多相关的学科,从数学、化学、物理学、生物化学、微生物学、药理学、物理化学、化工原理以及机械设备等等,因此说药剂学是一门综合性技术科学。 为了保证制剂安全有效,设计或选择剂型时必须考虑以下几个方面:质量稳定作用确切使用方便生产性、经济性生物等效性 药剂学任务药剂学基本理论的研究、新剂型的研究与开发、新技术的研究与开发、新辅料的研究与开发、中药新剂型的研究与开发、生物技术药物制剂的研究与开发、制剂新机械和新设备的研究与开发。 制剂技术、药用辅料、制剂设备是制备优质制剂不可缺少的三大支柱。 第二节药剂学的分支学科 工业药剂学,物理药剂学,药用高分子材料学,生物药剂学,药物动力学,临床药剂学,医药情报学 工业药剂学主要任务:研究剂型及制剂生产的基本理论、工艺技术、生产设备和质量管理。 目的:为临床提供安全、有效、稳定和便于使用的优质产品。 物理药剂学 物理药剂学(physical pharmaceutics)是运用物理原理、方法和手段,研究药剂学中有关剂型、制剂的处方设计、制备工艺、质量控制等内容的边缘学科。 内容:固相性质、结构、物态、药物分子的物理性质、不均匀分散系、溶液、离子平衡、溶解度、络合化学动力学、微粉学、流变学、热力学、药物分解因素、胶体化学。 药用高分子材料学 药用高分子材料学(polymers in pharmaceutics)主要介绍药剂学的剂型设计和制剂处方中常用的合成和天然高分子材料的结构、制备、物理化学特征以及其功能与应用。 生物药剂学 生物药剂学(biopharmaceutics)是研究药物在体内的吸收、分布、代谢与排泄的机制及过程,阐明药物因素、剂型因素和生理因素与药效之间关系的边缘学科。致力于研究从机体用药到药物排出体外全过程中有关药物量变和质变所有问题。 药代动力学 药代动力学(pharmacokinetics)是采用数学的方法,研究药物的吸收、分布、代谢与排泄的体内经时过程与药效之间关系的学科,具体研究体内药物的存在位置、数量(或浓度)的变化与时间的关系。对指导制剂设计、剂型改革、安全合理用药等提供量化指标。 临床药剂学 临床药剂学(clinical pharmaceutics)是以患者为对象,研究合理、有效、安全用药等与临床治疗学紧密联系的新学科,亦称(广义的)调剂学或临床药学。是从治疗疾病观念出发来认识药品的一门应用科学。

药剂学重点知识总结(精华篇)

第一章绪论 一、概念: 药剂学:是研究药物的处方设计、基本理论、制备工艺和合理应用的综合性技术科学。 制剂:将药物制成适合临床需要并符合一定质量标准的制剂。 药物制剂的特点:处方成熟、工艺规、制剂稳定、疗效确切、质量标准可行。 方剂:按医生处方为某一患者调制的,并明确指明用法和用量的药剂称为方剂。 调剂学:研究方剂调制技术、理论和应用的科学。 二、药剂学的分支学科: 物理药学:是应用物理化学的基本原理和手段研究药剂学中各种剂型性质的科学。 生物药剂学:研究药物、剂型和生理因素与药效间的科学。 药物动力学:研究药物吸收、分布、代与排泄的经时过程。 三、药物剂型:适合于患者需要的给药方式。 重要性: 1、剂型可改变药物的作用性质 2、剂型能调节药物的作用速度 3、改变剂型可降低或消除药物的毒副作用 4、某些剂型有靶向作用 5、剂型可直接影响药效 第二章药物制剂的基础理论 第一节药物溶解度和溶解速度 一、影响溶解度因素: 1、药物的极性和晶格引力 2、溶剂的极性 3、温度 4、药物的晶形 5、粒子大小 6、加入第三种物质 二、增加药物溶解度的方法: 1、制成可溶性盐 2、引入亲水基团 3、加入助溶剂:形成可溶性络合物 4、使用混合溶剂:潜溶剂(与水分子形成氢键) 5、加入增溶剂:表面活性剂(1)、同系物 C链长,增溶大(2)、分子量大,增溶小(3)、加入顺序(4)用量、配比 第二节流变学简介 流变学:研究物体变形和流动的科技交流科学。 牛顿液体:一般为低分子的纯液体或稀溶液,在一定温度下,牛顿液体的粘度η是一个常数,它只是温度的函数, 粘度随温度升高而减少。 非牛顿液体:1、塑性流动:有致流值2、假塑性流动:无致流值 3、胀性流动:曲线通过原点 4、触变流动:触变性,有滞后现象 第三节粉体学

《药剂学》练习题

《药剂学》练习题 第一章总论 一、名词解释 1.药剂学 2.药典 3.处方 4.GMP 5.GLP 6.DDS https://www.wendangku.net/doc/e57946220.html,P9.制剂 10.剂型11.溶液型分散系统12.乳剂型分散系统13.混悬型分散系统14.非胃肠道给药制剂15.固体型分散系统 16.气体型分散系统 二、思考题 1.药剂学的分支学科有哪些?试分别解释各学科的定义。 2.药剂学研究的主要任务是什么? 3.药剂学总体发展可划分为哪三个时期? 4.现代药剂学的核心内容是什么? 5.目前颁布的中国药典和国外药典有哪些?最新版本是哪一版? 6.简述药剂学的进展。 7.药物剂型可分为几类?试分别叙述。 8.剂型的重要性主要包括哪些? 9.药物制剂和剂型的发展可分为哪四个时代?试分别叙述。 10.药物制剂的基本要素是什么? 11.试述药物制剂与多学科的关系。 12.试述片剂在制备与贮存期间的注意事项。 第二章液体制剂 一、名词解释 1.液体药剂 2.流变性 3.溶解、溶解度和溶解速度 4.潜溶和助溶 5.增溶和胶束 6.HLB值、CMC、cloud point 7.乳剂和混悬剂8.凝胶和胶凝9.絮凝和反絮凝 10.微乳和复乳11.Zeta电位12.娇味剂 13.芳香剂14.着色剂15.掩蔽剂 二、思考题

1.液体制剂的特点及其分类方法有哪些?简述均相和非均相液体制剂的特征。试述分散度与疗效、稳定性之间的关系。牛顿流体的特点是什么?非牛顿流动流动曲线有哪几种类型? 2.流变学在药剂学中的有何应用? 3.增加药物溶解度的方法有哪几种? 4.根据Noyes-Whitney方程,简述影响溶解速度的因素。 5.试述表面活性剂定义、分类及结构特点。 6.影响表面活性剂增溶的因素有哪些? 7.试举例简述各类表面活性剂的特点和在药剂学中的应用。 8.简述表面活性剂的生物学性质。 9.何谓胶体溶液?有哪两类? 10.试述分子胶体和微粒胶体在结构、性质和稳定性方面的异同点。 11.热溶法冷溶法制备糖浆剂的优缺点有哪些? 12.试述乳化剂定义、种类及其乳化作用机理。 13.试述决定乳剂类型的主要因素及其转相方法。 14.简述微乳和普通乳剂的主要区别及其制备方法。 15.混悬剂处方中常用的稳定剂有哪几类? 16.何谓絮凝和反絮凝剂?其作用机理如何? 17.混悬剂的制备方法有哪些?其质量评价方法有哪些? 第三章无菌制剂和灭菌制剂 一、名词解释 1.灭菌制剂和无菌制剂 2.注射剂和输液 3.等渗和等张 4.热原和反渗透 5.原水、纯化水和注射用水 6.滴眼剂和洗眼剂 7.海绵剂和冻干制剂8.灭菌法9.无菌 10.防腐和消毒11.湿热灭菌法12.低温间歇式灭菌法 13.F值和Fo值14.工业净化和生物净化15.层流和紊流 二、思考题 1.药剂学中灭菌法可分为哪几类?物理灭菌技术主要包括哪些方法? 2.影响湿热灭菌的主要因素有哪些? 3.使用热压灭菌设备时应注意哪些事项?

第十二章聚类分析

第十二章聚类分析 聚类分析(CLUSTER)是将样本或变量进行分类的一种方法。 通常用相似性指标“距离”和“相似系数”来衡量研究对象的联系紧密程度,从而进行合理分类。“距离”常用来对样本分类,即把每一个样本看作是m维空间(若样本被m个变量所描述)的一个点,把距离较近的点归为一类,距离较远的点归为不同的类。“相似系数”用来对变量分类,将变量间相似系数较大的归为一类,较小的归为不同类。 第一节距离和相似系数 一、距离 1、“欧几里得”距离 A和B两点由m个变量所描述,其坐标分别是(x 1,x 2 ,…,x m )和(y 1 ,y 2 ,…,y m ), 那么d(A,B)= 例如:某次收视率调查中的部分数据如表1,则1号被访者和2号被访者的 “距离”为:d(A,B)= 表1:原始数据 上述测量的距离存在问题:(1)同一个变量单位不同会导致不同的距离;(2)不同变量的度量不一致,无法判断变量值大小和变量的重要程度,从而无法判断

距离的意义。因而需要对原始数据进行标准化。 表2:标准化数据 2、SPSS聚类分析中提供的距离 (1)欧式距离(EUCLID) (2)欧式距离的平方(SEUCLID),等于变量差2+变量差2+…… (3)曼哈顿距离(BLOCK),等于变量差的绝对值之和 (4)切比雪夫距离(CHEBYCHEV),等于变量差中绝对值最大者 (5)幂距离POWER(p,r),等于变量差的绝对值的p次方之和,再求r方根。2、相似系数 (1)变量间的相关系数即皮尔逊相关系数; (2)变量间的夹角余弦,即将两变量分别看成n维空间的向量时的夹角余弦值。 相关系数一般针对定距变量,对于定类变量特别是二项变量也可引入虚拟变量后计算相关系数。 例1:假定5个样本(人)具有如下指标:(1)请对个体进行分类;(2)对变量进行分类。 表3:五个人的六种身体特征指标

第8章:聚类分析

第8章聚类分析与判别分析 分类学是人类认识世界的基础科学。聚类分析和判别分析是研究事物分类的基本方法。 聚类分析 聚类分析(Cluster Analysis)是根据事物本身的特性研究个体分类的方法。聚类分析的原则是同一类中的个体有较大的相似性,不同类中的个体差异很大。 根据分类对象的不同分为样品聚类和变量聚类。 1.样品聚类 样品聚类在统计学中又称为Q型聚类。用SPSS的术语来说就是对事件(Cases)进行聚类,或是说对观测量进行聚类。是根据被观测的对象的各种特征,即反映被观测对象的特征的各变量值进行分类。 样品聚类是进行判别分析之前的必要工作。根据样品聚类的结果进行判别分析,得出判别函数,进而对其他研究对象属于哪一类作出判断。例如在选拔少年运动员时首先要根据少年的身体形态、身体素质、心理素质、生理功能的各种指标(变量)进行测试,得到各种指标的测试值(变量值),据此对少年进行分类。根据分类结果再求得出选材的判别函数,作为选材的依据。 2.变量聚类 变量聚类在统计学中又称为R型聚类。反映同一事物特点的变量有很多,我们往往根据所研究的问题选择部分变量对事物的某一方面进行研究。由于人类对客观事物的认识是有限的,往往难以找出彼此独立的有代表性的变量,而影响对问题的进一步认识和研究。例如在回归分析中,由于自变量的共线性导致偏回归系数不能真正反映自变量对因变量的影响等。因此往往先要进行变量聚类,找出彼此独立且有代表性的自变量,而又不丢失大部分信息。 判别分析 判别分析是根据表明事物特点的变量值和它们所属的类求出判别函数,根据判别函数对未知所属类别的事物进行分类的一种分析方法。 在自然科学和社会科学的各个领域经常遇到需要对某个个体属于哪一类进行判断。 判别分析与聚类分析的不同在于判别分析要求已知一系列反映事物特征的数值变量值及其分类变量值。 分类命令的功能 其中包括: (1)K-Means Cluster进行快速聚类的过程。(略) (2)Hierarchical Cluster进行样本聚类和变量聚类的过程。 (3)Discriminate进行判别分析的过程。 快速样本聚类过程 快速聚类的基本概念 当要聚成的类数已知时,使用QUICK CLUSTER过程可以很快将观测量分到各类中去。其特点是处理速度快,占用内存少。适用于大样本的聚类分析。 分层聚类 分层聚类的概念与聚类分析过程 1.分层聚类的概念 聚类的方法有多种,除了前面介绍的快速聚类法外,最常用的是分层聚类法。根据聚类过程不同又分为凝聚法和分解法。 (1)分解法:聚类开始把所有个体(观测量或变量)都视为属于一大类,然后根据距离和相似性逐层分解,直到参与聚类的每个个体自成一类为止。 (2)凝聚法:聚类开始把参与聚类的每个个体(观测量或变量)视为一类,根据两类之间的距离或相似性逐步合并,直到合并为一个大类为止。

第十一章 聚类分析

第11章聚类分析 聚类分析(CLUSTER)是将样本或变量进行分类的一种方法。 通常用相似性指标“距离”和“相似系数”来衡量研究对象的联系紧密程度,从而进行合理分类。“距离”常用来对样本分类,即把每一个样本看作是m维空间(若样本被m个变量所描述)的一个点,把距离较近的点归为一类,距离较远的点归为不同的类。“相似系数”用来对变量分类,将变量间相似系数较大的归为一类,较小的归为不同类。 第一节距离和相似系数 一、距离 1、“欧几里得”距离 A和B两点由m个变量所描述,其坐标分别是(x 1,x 2 ,…,x m )和(y 1 ,y 2 ,…,y m ), 那么d(A,B)= 例如:某次收视率调查中的部分数据如表1,则1号被访者和2号被访者的 “距离”为:d(A,B)= 表1:原始数据 上述测量的距离存在问题:(1)同一个变量单位不同会导致不同的距离;(2)不同变量的度量不一致,无法判断变量值大小和变量的重要程度,从而无法判断距离的意义。因而需要对原始数据进行标准化。 表2:标准化数据

2、SPSS 聚类分析中提供的距离 (1)欧式距离(EUCLID ) (2)欧式距离的平方(SEUCLID ),等于变量差2+变量差2+…… (3)曼哈顿距离(BLOCK ),等于变量差的绝对值之和 (4)切比雪夫距离(CHEBYCHEV ),等于变量差中绝对值最大者 (5)幂距离POWER(p,r),等于变量差的绝对值的p 次方之和,再求r 方根。 2、相似系数 (1)变量间的相关系数即皮尔逊相关系数; (2)变量间的夹角余弦,即将两变量分别看成n 维空间的向量时的夹角余弦值。 相关系数一般针对定距变量,对于定类变量特别是二项变量也可引入虚拟变量后计算相关系数。 例1:假定5个样本(人)具有如下指标:(1)请对个体进行分类;(2)对变量进行分类。 表3:五个人的六种身体特征指标 解:变量中包含定距和定类变量,可以全部变成虚拟变量(也可将后四个虚拟), 令X 1= ;X 2= ;X 3= X 4= ;X 5= ;X 6= ,表3可转化为表4: 1,身高≥170 0,身高<170 1,体重≥130 0,体重<130 1,双眼皮 0,单眼皮 1,高鼻梁 0,低鼻梁 1,用左手 0,用右手 1,女 0,男

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