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英语语言学自编教材第一章

The word “language” with no article implies that linguistics studies languages in general, not any particular language. The word “study” means “investigate” or “examine” instead of “learn”. A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language. Linguists are not required to know many languages and linguists are not interpreters. The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover the universals concerning language, that is, the common elements of all languages. The linguist then tries to place these elements in a theoretical framework that will describe all languages and also predict what can not occur in a language.

The scientific processes of linguistic study are:

① Certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are formed;

② Hypotheses are formulated;

③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;

④ A linguistic theory is constructed.

Linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds, e.g. of how they are made (articulatory phonetics), transmitted (acoustic phonetics), and received (auditory phonetics). Phonetics has broad applications in a number of areas, including speech recognition, speech synthesis, forensic linguistics, speech therapy and language instruction.

Phonology analyses how sounds are organized in a language (phonological structure) and attempts to discover the principles that govern sound systems in languages in general.

Morphology examines the structure or form of words, how they are constructed of smaller units (called “m orphemes”) whi ch have meaning (for example, singer is composed of sing + er).

Syntax investigates how words (and grammatical elements) are combined to form sentences, what speakers know about the grammatical structure of their language, how sentences are interrelated and what the general grammatical and cognitive principles are which explain these arrangements, relationships, and knowledge.

Semantics is the study of the abstract or inherent meaning in isolation, not in context.

Pragmatics is concerned with how the meaning of linguistic acts depends on the context in which they are performed. It looks at language from the point of view of the users and the choices they make, and constraints on those choices, in social interaction. (For example, pragmatics studies what ca n make the sentence “Can you open the door?” count as a question in one situation and as a request for action in another.)

Sociolinguistics probes the relationship between language and society. This involves variation in language use which correlates with such things as the age, gender, social class, ethnicity, and general social attributes of speakers and hearers. Sociolinguists also deal with attitudes towards language, social aspects of language change, and linguistic aspects of social issues.

Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic methods and findings to a number of areas. It is especially associated with language teaching methodology and second-language acquisition, but also involves language and the law, language and classroom education, child development, language and reading, speech therapy, language and public policy, translation, advertising, and the like.

Historical linguistics studies how and why languages change.

Discourse analysis examines how language is structured beyond the sentence and thus involves topic and comment, narrative structure, cohesiveness, written vs. spoken language, and conversational analysis.

Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelationship between language and human cognition (the role of language as it affects memory, perception, and learning) and the effects of psychological constraints on language (on its use, production, and comprehension). The best known area of psycholinguistics is the study of child language acquisition, how children acquire their native language.

Anthropological linguistics deals with the relationship between language and culture; also it involves the study of little-known languages in their cultural setting.

Computational linguistics or mathematical linguistics is the branch of linguistics which looks at languages essentially as formal systems, and applies computational techniques and concepts to understanding issues such as automatic machine translation and parsing. The goal of research in these areas is to uncover the logical and mathematical structures that underlie linguistic systems.

Language is such an important part of our lives that learning about the languages of other people, including how those languages differ from ours, is in a very real sense learning about those people. As with any other aspect of culture, lack of knowledge can lead to intolerance. Looking more closely at languages, in particular at languages that might seem exotic to us, can make us more tolerant.

Obviously an educated person needs to be able to sort out the nonsense, to see how bias and ideology are behind what is being claimed, to be a critical reader and listener, and to make informed decisions. All these are impossible without understanding the role that language plays in knowledge, belief, and persuasion.

Linguistics provides students with valuable training for many different kinds of opportunities. Linguistics knowledge is required in the work on speech recognition, search engines, and artificial intelligence; those with a background in linguistics may teach at the university level or work in education, developing curricula and materials, teaching students, training teachers, and designing tests and other methods of assessment, etc.. They may work as a translator or interpreter. They may work with dictionaries as knowledge of phonology, morphology, historical linguistics, dialectology, and sociolinguistics is key to becoming a lexicographer, to name just a few.

Firstly, language is a system, which means the elements of language are combined according to rules. This accounts for why it is possible for us to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences based on a limited number of linguistic forms.

Secondly, language is arbitrary for there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. For instance, different languages use different forms to refer to the same thing. Even within the same language, the same form can also be used to mean different things such as /rait/ for right, rite, write, etc..

Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well- developed their writing systems are.

Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

1.2Design Features of Language

“The little lavender men who live in my socks drawer told me that Elvis will come back from Mars on the 10th to do a benefit concert for unemployed Pekingese dogs.” Have you ever heard or read this sentence before? Is it rule-based? Do you have problems in understanding its meaning?

To illustrate the properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication, the American linguist Charles Hockett proposed thirteen design features of language, five of which will be discussed here.

Arbitrariness, first proposed by Saussure, means there is no intrinsic or logical connection between the form of the signal and the thing being referred to. The relation between a linguistic form and what it refers to is established by convention. For example, there is no reason that in English a table which has a flat or sloping top at which we can sit in order to write or work should be called a desk, not a bureau, or Shuzhuo or Tisch (words for desk respectively in French, Chinese and German). Onomatopoeic words such as quack and bark are often cited as counter-examples, based on the argument that they are pronounced like the sound they refer to. However, the linguistic forms which different languages use to imitate the natural sounds are still different. English ducks quack, but the Chinese linguistic form for the same sound is ga , so even onomatopoeic words are, to some extent, arbitrary.

Productivity means that human languages allow speakers to create novel, never-before-heard utterances that others can understand. As the example mentioned above shows, the sentence “The little lavender men …unemployed Pekingese dogs” is a novel and never-before-heard sentence, but any fluent speaker of English would be able to understand it and realize that the speaker was not completely sane, in all probability.

Duality of patterning means that the discrete parts of a language can be recombined in a systematic way to create new forms. As a system, language consists of two levels, one of which refers to the structure of sounds that can be grouped and regrouped into a larger number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words. The other level is a higher level, which can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. This idea is similar to Productivity. However, Productivity refers to the ability to generate novel meanings, while Duality of patterning refers to the ability to recombine small units in different orders.

Displacement means that the speaker can talk about things which are not present, either spatially or temporally. For example, human language allows speakers to talk about the past and the future, as well as the present. Speakers can also talk about things that are physically distant (such as other countries, the moon, etc.). They can even refer to things and events that do not actually exist (they are not present in reality) such as the Easter Bunny, the Earth having an emperor, or the destruction of Tara in Gone with the Wind.

Arbitrariness: There is no direct, intrinsic or logical connection between the

form of the signal and the thing being referred to. In other words, there is no dependence of linguistic forms on the nature of the reality to which they refer (unlike the speed of bee “dancing”, which directly reflects the distance of the nectar from the hive).

Productivity: Human languages allow speakers to create novel, never-before-heard utterances that others can understand (unlike the limited, fixed set of calls used by animals).

Duality of patterning: The sounds of language have no intrinsic meaning, but combine in different ways to form elements (such as words) that do convey meaning (unlike animal calls, which cannot be analyzed into two such levels of structure).

Displacement: The speaker can talk about things which are not present, either spatially or temporally. It is possible to talk about events remote in space or time from the situation of the speaker (unlike most animal cries, which reflect immediate environmental stimuli).

Cultural transmission: It is also called traditional transmission. Language is transmitted from one generation to the next primarily by a process of teaching and learning (unlike the bee’s ability to communicate the source of nectar, which is passed on genetically).

Language teachers and traditional grammarians are very often prescriptive in the sense that they lay down grammatical rules for the correct use of a certain language. As long as a grammatical rule is laid down, it will be imposed on language users. The uses of language in accordance with the grammatical rules will be evaluated as correct, while those violating the rules will be judged as wrong. The grammatical rules constructed by language teachers are not necessarily based on the language real uses.

Linguists are descriptive. They do not believe there is absolute standard of correctness in the use of language. They stand by and observe real language uses. They describe and analyze the language people actually use. In the study of language, linguists can find some language rules. However, they do not force these language rules on language users.

Actually, in the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. The grammarians then tried to tell the learner what he should say, or what is supposed to be correct usage.

But modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. Linguistic study is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is to describe the language people actually use rather than judge these facts subjectively and label them as “correct” or

“wrong”. Modern linguists believe that the facts of usage count more than the “correct rules”.

Prescriptive linguistics: It is concerned with the work of laying down rules governing how a language should be used.

Descriptive linguistics: It is concerned with the work of objectively analyzing and describing how language is spoken (or how it was spoken in the past) by a group of people in a speech community.

3.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic

If you open a history book, you may find that the whole book follows the time order and each chapter deals with a specific period of the nation. For example, in a Chinese history book, there are different well-arranged chapters for different dynasties. Now, let’s think about this: if we apply such kind of method to the study of languages, which aspects should we focus on?

Language is, to some extent, a very important part of history. So it exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at a specific point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language through the course of its history is a diachronic study. A diachronic study focuses on the historical development of language over a period of time. For example, the word “gossip”originally meant “Godparent”. Then it picked up a new meaning “acquaintance”. In Shakespeare’s time, Shakespeare was the first to use the word as a verb to mean “talk idly, with no academic or business purpose”. This approach to the study of meaning is diachronic because it is a study of the changes which English has undergone. However, a study of the features of the English used only in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic because this study does not involve the study of language changes at that specific point of time.

Due to the fact that unless the various states of a language are clarified it is difficult to describe its historical change, synchronic study seems to be prior to diachronic study. Synchronic study is often thought of as being descriptions of a language as it exists at the present day and most linguistic studies are of this type.

Synchronic analysis: It means analyzing linguistic phenomena only at one point in time, usually the present.

Diachronic analysis: It means analyzing the historical development of a language, which involves two points in time.

3.3 Speech vs. Writing

Summaries to Make and Linguistic Viewpoints to Learn

Actually, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons:

①Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is, to a large extent, “invented”to record speech. Even today there are still many languages that only have the spoken form without the written form.

②In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the considerable amount of information it conveys. We use the written form as something supplementary to what is spoken very often in the situation where direct face-to-face communication is impossible.

③Speech is always the way in which native speakers acquire their mother tongues, and writing is learned and taught later when they go to school.

For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.

Speech: It is the spoken form of language.

Writing: It is the written form of language.

3.4 Langue vs. Parole

1)We know language is a system, which is composed of a series of sub-systems

such as phonological system, morphological system, syntactic system, etc. In the left column of the table are some syntactic rules concerning the formation of Noun Phrases in the English syntactic system. Try to offer some examples in the right column.

Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e. , to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.

Langue: It is the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.

Parole: It is the realization of langue in actual use.

3.5 Competence vs. Performance

As English learners, especially as English majors, we have grasped most of the rules of English, but if you listen to your classmates’ oral English carefully, you may find numerous grammatical mistakes even in the mature learners’. So try to discuss the relationship between one’s mastery of rules of a language and his actual use of language in concrete situations.

According to the distinction made by the American linguist N. Chomsky, a language user’s ideal knowledge of the rules of his language is called competence and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance.

Chomsky insists that there is a set of rules about one’s language in the mind which enables one to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize ungrammatical or ambiguous sentences. It is true that although one may possess perfect knowledge of his own language, he still make mistakes in actual use. So Chomsky argues that one’s performance is unreliable and the task of a linguist is to abstract the underlying system of rule from the data of performance.

Obviously, Chomsky’s distinction of competence and performance is closely related to the distinction of langue and parole made by Saussure. And their emphasis is also very similar. But they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions while Chomsky approaches language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

Competence: It is a speaker’s underlying ability to produce grammat ically correct expressions .

Performance: It is the speaker’s actual use of a language.

1. Define the following terms:Linguistics; langue; parole; arbitrariness; duality of patterning; displacement; diachronic study; competence; performance

6. What’s the major difference between Chomsky’s distinction of competence and performance and Saussure’s distinction of langue and parole? What should be studied in linguistics in your opinion and why?

英语语言学总结

第一章 All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a systm of semantics. 语音系统，词汇语法系统和语义系统。 Language is a means of verbal communication. Design Features of language: the features that define our human languages. 决定了语言性质特征叫定义特征 Design Features: Arbitratiness(任意性)：the froms of liguistic signs bear no natural relationsip to their meaning.语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。 1\ Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and ists meaning语素音义关系的任意性 2\ Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性。 Syntactic: the sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement. 句法学，是依据语法规定构建句子结构的方法。 3\ Arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性 Duality（二层性）: is meant the propertry of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。 Sound-the only function is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning相互组合构成有意义的单位。 Creativity（创造性）：is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. 源于二层性和递归性 Displacement(移位性)：human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.人类语言可以让使用者在交往时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体时间或观点。比如现在说孔子。语言功能： 1. informative, also called ideational function. 信息功能也叫概念功能 2) Performative施为功能，is to change the social status of persons. 改变人的社会地位，比如仪式。 3) Emotive Function感情功能 4) Phatic communion寒暄功能 5) Recreational Function娱乐功能

英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)

一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求（一）课程性质和特点《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。（二）本课程的基本要求本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。（三）本课程与相关课程的联系英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。二、课程内容与考核目标

英语语言学2 Morphology形态学word讲义

Chapter 3 Morphology形态学 Nothing is more important to language than words. Words can carry meaning. Words are the fundamental building blocks of a language. So, is word the most basic or the minimal unit of meaning? If not, then what is? How words are formed?---morphology 3.1 what is morphology? Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 3.2 Open class and closed class (开放词类和封闭词类) Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns. New words can be added to open class words regularly with the development of human civilization. However, the number of closed class words is small and stable since few new words are added. 3.3Morphemes--the minimal units of meaning（词素，最小的意义单位） Word is the smallest free from found in language. Word can be further divided into smaller meaningful units---morphemes. So, morpheme is--- the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g. 1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boyish, desirable 3-morpheme boyishness, desirability 4-morpheme gentlemanliness, undesir(e)abl(e)ity 5-morpheme ungentlemanliness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism Free morpheme & bound morpheme Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc. Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as ―-s‖ in ―dogs‖, ―al‖ in ―national‖, ―dis-‖ in ―disclose‖, ―ed‖ in ―recorded‖, Allomorph

英语语言学讲解

《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。

三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时学分：4学分六、教学内容：第一章绪论本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。

英语语言学笔记讲解

第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.wendangku.net/doc/ec9929081.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is

27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology

Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on

语言学教程第三章重点

Questions for Chapter 3(Key) 1. Define the following terms: morpheme morphology inflection derivation allomorph bound morpheme free morpheme compound stem affix root grammatical word lexical word closed-class open-class blending acronym clipping back-formation 2. List the bund morphemes in the following words: fearlessly, misleads, previewer, shortened, unhappier -less, -ly, mis-, -s, pre-, -er, -en, -ed, un-, -ier 3. In which of the following examples should the ‘a’ be treated as a bound morpheme? a boy, apple, atypical, AWOL a is treated as a bound morpheme in atypical 4. What are the inflectional morphemes in these expressions? It’s raining; the cow jumped over the moon; the newest style; the singer’s new songs Person inflection: for aspect:rain ing, jump ed, Comparative case: new est, Case: singer’s Number: song s 5. Determine the original term from which the following words were back-formed. (a) burgle burglar (b) enthuse enthusiasm (c) greed greedy (d) automate automation (e) donate donation (f) escalate escalator (g) peddle peddler (h) diagnose diagnosis (i) loaf loafer (j) self-destruct self-destruction (k) attrit attrition (l) hairdress hairdresser (m) drowse drowsy (n) frivol frivolus

语言学第一章整理

Chapter one 1.What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System means it is rule-governed; arbitrary means there is no logical relationship between language elements and their meaning; vocal means speech is primary; symbols related to arbitrariness, it means language elements are only the symbols for the meaning they express. Human, it means language is uniquely human; communication is the primary function of language. 2.What are the design features of language, give their definitions and examples. Arbitrary: arbitrary is the core feature of language, which means that there is no logical relation between meanings and sounds. Arbitrary is a matter of degree, language is not entirely arbitrary, first, the onomatopoeia are words that sound like the sound they describe, to some extent, they have natural basis. Second, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary either, “snow” and“storm” are arbitrary words, but the compound word “snowstorm”is less so. Thirdly, some surnames, such as Longfellow, Johnson. Examples: a rose by other name would smell as sweet Duality: is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization .we call sounds secondary units as opposed to primary units as words, since the secondary are meaningless and the primary unit have distinct and identifiable meaning. Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings. By creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. By duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Language is creativity in another sense, that is, its

英语语言学概论第三章习题及答案

2017级英语语言学概论第三章习题请认真填写学号和姓名。每次答题仅第一次提交有效。个人信息：[矩阵文本题] * I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False. 1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错 2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language. [判断题] * 对错(正确答案) 3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错

4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错 5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错 6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错 7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. [判断题] * 对(正确答案) 错 8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it. [判断题] * 对错(正确答案)

语言学第三章

Chapter 3 Lexicon 3.1 What is word? 1. What is a lexeme? A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write”is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.” 2. What is a morpheme? A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning. 3. What is an allomorph? An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc. 4. What is a word? A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing. 3.1.1 Three senses of “word” 1. A physically definable unit 2. The common factor underlying a set of forms 3. A grammatical unit 3.1.2 Identification of words 1. Stability Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English. 2. Relative uninterruptibility By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment. 3. A minimum free form This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “th e minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance. 3.1.3 Classification of words 1. V ariable and invariable words In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings. 2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.

英语语言学第一章第二章

第一章：绪论 1．什么是语言学？ 1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。 1．2语言学的研究范畴: 语言学研究有不同的侧重。对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。 1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念 1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。一切符合规定规则的被认为是“正确的”，否则就被冠为“错误的”。 1．3．2共时性和历时性对语言的研究分为共时研究和历时研究。共时研究是对语言的静态特征的研究。它主要对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述。历时研究主要是对语言变化和发展的研究。现代语言学研究主要是共时性研究。 1．3．3口头语和书面语现代语言学把书面语看作是口头语的记录，认为口头语是第一性的，是语言交际最基本的方式。这是因为从人类社会交际的发展来看，口头语先于笔头语，笔头语是对口头语的记录。从交际的功能来看，人们交际主要采取口头形式。此外，即使是在当今世界，仍然有不少语言只有口头形式，没有笔头形式。所以语言学研究的语料应从口头语中采集。传统语法学家过分重视笔头语料，轻视口头语料。 1．3．4语言和言语语言和言语的区别是瑞士语言学家索绪尔在20世纪初提出来的。语言是语言社区所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统，是一个语言社区所有的人应该遵守的一套约定俗成的规则，它相