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双城记英语论文
双城记英语论文

On the Significance of the Historical Context in A Tale of Two Cities from the Perspective of New Historicism

is submitted

to

The English Department

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Bachelor of Arts

Contents

1. Introduction (1)

1.1 A brief introduction of Charles Dickens and A Tale of Two Cities (1)

1.2 Literature review (1)

1.3 Purpose and significance of the study (2)

2. Introduction of New Historicism (2)

2.1 Basic standpoints of new historicists (2)

2.2 New historicism and literature (3)

2.3 Historical context in A Tale of Two Cities and new historicism (4)

3. The Significance of the historical context in A Tale of Two Cities (4)

3.1 Reliable interpretation of the French Revolution (4)

3.1.1 Cruelty of French aristocracy (4)

3.1.2 Brutality of those rebels (5)

3.1.3 Victims of the revolution (6)

3.2 Warnings to British society (7)

3.2.1 A warning to British ruling class (7)

3.2.2 A warning to the mobs (8)

3.3 Charles Dickens’ humanistic r eformist idea reflected through the

historical context (8)

3.3.1 The ideal character---- Sydney Carton (8)

3.3.2 The humanistic reformist solution to social problems (9)

4. Conclusion (10)

Bibliography (11)

1. Introduction

1.1 A brief introduction of Charles Dickens and A Tale of Two Cities

Charles Dickens is the most popular English novelist of the Victorian era, and he remains popular, responsible for some of English literature's most iconic characters. Charles Dickens was born in Portsmouth, England on 7th February 1812, but he spent most of his childhood in London and Kent where he based many of his novels. As the second of eight children in a very poor family, he lived a difficult childhood. Eventually, his father was sent to debtor?s prison, and Dickens himself went to work at the age of twelve to help pay off the family?s debt. This troublesome time scarred Dickens deeply and provided him with substantial material for such stories as Great Expectations, Oliver Twist, and David Copperfield. Steeped in social criticism, Dickens?s writing provides a keen, sympathetic chronicle of the plight of the urban poor in nineteenth-century England. During his lifetime, Dickens enjoyed immense popularity, in part because of his vivid characterizations, and in part because he published his novels in installments, making them readily affordable to a greater number of people.

A Tale of Two Cities is one of Charles Dickens?s most important representative works. With well over 200 million copies sold, A Tale of Two Cities is among the most famous works of fiction. The novel depicts the plight of the French peasantry demoralized by the French aristocracy in the years leading up to the revolution, the corresponding brutality demonstrated by the revolutionaries toward the former aristocrats in the early years of the revolution, and many unflattering social parallels with life in London during the same time period. It follows the lives of several protagonists through these events. The most notable are Charles Darnay and Sydney Carton. Darnay is a French once-aristocrat who falls victim to the indiscriminate wrath of the revolution despite his virtuous nature, and Carton is a dissipated British barrister who endeavors to redeem his ill-spent life out of his unrequited love for Darnay's wife, Lucie Manette. The novel was published in weekly installments instead of monthly, as with most of his other novels. The first ran in the first issue of Dickens' literary periodical All the Year Round on 30 April 1859. The last ran thirty-one weeks later, on 25 November.

1.2 Literature review

Charles Dickens has always been regarded as one of the most famous novelists in the Victoria era, whose works are persistently studied on different kinds of fields by many experts and a number of studies have been conducted on the work of A Tale of Two Cities at present. Generally speaking, studies focusing on the novel have been taken mainly include the following directions: First, the investigation on the theme of the novel as LIANG Xu-dong does in An Analysis of the Humanistic Theme of A Tale of Two Cities and WANG shuang does in On Humanistic Thinking in A Tale of Two

Cities by Dickens; second, the analysis on the words and art structures of the novel, as Liao Xinli does in Pragmatics Permeation in A Tale of Two Cities and HUANG Ting-yue does in On the Esthetics Characteristic of A Tale of Two Cities; third, on the characters of the novel, such as On the Classification of Characters in A Tale of Two Cities by Tian Zi, New Understanding to the Creation of Characters and Value in A Tale of Two Cities by CONG Juan and On the Misinterpretation of the Character of Marquis St. Evremonde in A Tale of Two Cities by LIANG Xu-dong; fourth, on the historical context which is related to this paper, such as On the French Revolution and the Two Cities in A Tale of Two Cities by Wang Xin-ran and On the Depiction of the French Revolution in A Tale of Two Cities by Wang Ze-wen.

Those experts researching on the historical context of A Tale of Two Cities mainly discuss the depiction of the French Revolution and the two cities by Charles Dickens. Although they integrate the analysis of the historical context while doing their research, few of them pay much attention to the significance of the historical context especially from the perspective of new historicism. Therefore, the author of this paper explores the very point in order to fill the gap.

1.3 Purpose and significance of the study

With French and the English society of the years around 18th century as the background, A Tale of Two Cities reveals effectively the novelist's purpose of revealing the injustices of oppression and the social problems of the British society. However, Dickens shows his strong criticism on the excess of bloodshed during the French Revolution, especially in his consideration of the innocent(like Charles Darnay)being punished along with the guilty. He feels that the old ways of oppression must be changed, and that much oppression and much misery will inevitably lead to revolution, but when the revolution actually appears, he thinks that it is too violent and that the less bloodshed, the better. As a historical novel, although the characters in A Tale of Two Cities are fictitious, the historical context depicted by Charles Dickens is of much significance. Therefore research on the significance of the historical context in A Tale of Two Cities can be worthwhile. This paper is going to explore the significance of the historical context in A Tale of Two Cities from the perspective of new historicism, analyzing the reliable interpretation of the French Revolution, the warnings to the then British society and the constructive solutions to the social problems reflected in the novel.

2. Introduction of New Historicism

2.1 Basic standpoints of new historicists

The literature critical theory of new historicism is applied throughout the paper. It was a movement that began punctually at the beginning of the 1980s, when the American critic Stephen Greenblatt edited a selection of Renaissance essays and announced that

they constituted a “new historicism”. New Historicists aim simultaneously to understand the work through its historical context and to understand cultural and intellectual history through literature, which documents the new discipline of the history of ideas. New Historicism is claimed to be a more neutral approach to historical events, and to be sensitive towards different cultures.

The key concepts of new historicism are as follows:

a. The writing of history is a matter of interpretations, not facts. Thus, all historical accounts are narratives and can be analyzed using many of the tools used by literary critics to analyze narrative.

b. History is neither linear (it does not proceed neatly from cause A to effect B and from cause B to effect C) nor progressive (the human species is not steadily improving over the course of time).

c. Power is never wholly confined to a single person or to a single level of society. Rather, power circulates in a culture through exchanges of material goods, exchanges of human beings, and most important for literary critics, as we?ll see below, exchanges of ideas through the various discourses a culture produces.

d. There is no monolithic spirit of an age, and there is no adequate totalizing explanation of history. There is only a dynamic, unstable interplay among discourses, the meanings of which the historian can try to analyze, though that analysis will always be incomplete, accounting for only a part of the historical pictur

e.

e. Personal identity----like historical events, texts, and artifacts----is shaped by and shapes the culture in which it emerges. Thus, cultural categories such as normal and abnormal, sane and insane, are matters of definition. Put another way, our individual identity consists of the narratives we tell ourselves about ourselves, and we draw the material for our narratives from the circulation of discourses that constitutes our culture.

f. All historical analysis is unavoidably subjective. Historians must therefore reveal the ways in which they know they have been positioned, by their own cultural experience, to interpret history.

2.2 New historicism and literature

For traditional literary historians, literature existed in a purely subjective realm, unlike history, which consisted of objectively discernable facts. Therefore, literature could never be interpreted to mean anything that history didn?t authorize it to mean. By contrast, new historicists consider even when traditional historians believe they are sticking to the facts, the way they contextualize those facts determines what story those facts will tell. From this perspective, there is no such thing as a presentation of

facts; there is only interpretation. Furthermore, new historicists argue that reliable interpretations, for a number of reasons, difficult to produce. Therefore new historicists consider history a text that can be interpreted the same way literature critics interpret literary texts, and conversely, it considers literary texts cultural artifacts that can tell us something about the interplay of discourse, the web of social meanings, operating in time and place in which those texts were written. The literary text and the historical situation from which it emerged are equally important because text (the literary work) and context (the historical conditions that produced it) are mutually constitutive: they create each other. New historicism stresses the interaction between texts and history. Literary texts may take part in the construction of history.

2.3 Historical context in A Tale of Two Cities and new historicism

The new historicist tenets provide new paradigm in the reading and interpretation of A Tale of Two Cities. The novel not only presents the readers a reliable interpretation of the French Revolution, but also gives warnings to the British society then and comes up with constructive solutions to the social problems. All these take part in the construction of history, making the novel an exemplifying text for new historicism. Therefore, the focus of this study is to explore the significance of the historical context in A Tale of Two Cities from the perspective of new historicism through three aspects which are the reliable interpretation of the French Revolution, warnings to British society and Charles Dickens? humanistic reformist idea reflected through the historical context.

3. The Significance of the historical context in A Tale of Two Cities

3.1 Reliable interpretation of the French Revolution

3.1.1 Cruelty of French aristocracy

In the novel, before the French Revolution, the common people in Paris are extremely poor and miserable. The crops in the fields are poor as if even the land shares the misery of the people. There are so heavy taxes that all the villagers have nothing to hand over at last. The poor suffer from overcrowding, hunger, repetitive labor, and long hours of work. Poor peasants are exploited greatly by the aristocracy and they live a terrible life. The poor are far below the upper classes and the rich do nothing to help, for fear that the poor would want to better themselves when they work as cheap labor. Hunger can be found here and there in the lower classes? life, just as Dickens writes in the novel “Hunger was pushed out of the tall houses, in the wretched clothing that hung upon poles and lines; Hunger was patched into them with straw and rag and wood and paper; Hunger was repeated in every fragment of the small modicum of firewood that the man sawed off; Hunger stared down from the smokeless chimneys, and started up from the filthy street that had no offal, among its refuse, or anything to eat…”

The common people do not have the political freedom and human rights, either. There are no justice, no equality and no fairness. Just as what happens to Doctor Manette, he writes to the Minister to show the crime that Marquis Evremonde have done, only resulting in being arrested and sent to the prison Bastille without any reason.

On the contrary, the aristocracy share luxurious materials plundered from the poor. What?s more, the upper classes bull y or even kill the poor without any mercy. The aristocracies make their will as the law by using money and gold. In the novel, Dickens sarcastically describes a typical cruel nobleman—Marquis Evremonde. When he is young, his brother and he steal a countrywoman by force and kill her family .What?s worse, he use s his power to imprison Doctor Manette, a kind and honest man who knows all the things they have done and wants to disclose their crimes. In order to hide their crimes, Marquis Evremonde and his brother throw Doctor Manette into prison for 18 years. During these 18 years, Doctor Manette loses his freedom and suffers a great in spirit. The aristocracy deprives othe r people?s freedom as they like and they think it is normal and unremarkable. They have never realized that they?ve done something wrong or something improper.

As well as the Evremonde brothers, other Marquis lead a quite luxurious life too. Dickens describes their lives with vivid language. For example, an earl needs four servants to serve him to have chocolate tea every morning. If not, “ but, his morning's chocolate could not so much as get into the throat of Monseigneur, without the aid of four strong men besides the Cook.” “It was impossible for Monseigneur to dispense with one of these attendants on the chocolate and hold his high place under the admiring Heavens. Deep would have been the blot upon his escutcheon if his chocolate had been ignobly waited on by only three men; he must have died of two.” How decaying these earls are! What?s more, those earls regard the poor as animals but not human beings. And once when his carriage knocks down a poor child, the aristocrat only cares about his own horses but not the young poor child. When he knows the child is dead, instead of feeling guilty, “It is extraordinary to me,” s ays he, …that you people cannot take care of yourselves and your children. One or the othe r of you is forever in the way. How do I know what injury you have done my horses? See! Give him that. He threw out a gold coin…” Dickens castigates the upper classes? inhuman action with ironic language.

3.1.2 Brutality of those rebels

Throughout the novel, Dickens approaches his historical subject with some ambivalence. While he supports the revolutionary cause, he often points to the evil of the revolutionaries themselves. Dickens deeply sympathizes with the plight of the French peasantry and emphasizes their need for liberation. The several chapters that deal with Marquis Evremonde successfully paint a picture of a vicious aristocracy that shamelessly exploits and oppresses the nation?s poor. Although Dickens condemns

this oppression, however, he also condemns the peasants? strategies in overcoming it. For in fighting cruelty with cruelty, the peasants effect no true revolution; rather, they only perpetuate the violence that they themselves have suffered. Dickens makes his stance clear in his suspicious and cautionary depictions of the mobs. The scenes in which the people sharpen their weapons at the grindstone and dance the grisly Carmagnole come across as deeply macabre. Dickens?s most concise and relevant view of revolution comes in the final chapter, in which he notes the slippery slope down from the oppressed to the oppressor: “Sow the seed of rapacious license and oppression over again, and it will surely yield the same fruit according to its kind.”Though Dickens sees the French Revolution as a great symbol of transformation and resurrection, he emphasizes that its violent means were ultimately antithetical to its end.

Processing a remorseless bloodlust, Madame Defarge embodies the chaos of the French Revolution. The initial chapters of the novel find her sitting quietly and knitting in the wine-shop. However, her apparent passively belies her relentless thirst for vengeance. With her stitches, she secretly knits a register of the names of the revolution?s intended victims. As the revolution breaks into full force, Madame Defarge reveals her true viciousness. She turns on Lucie in particular, and, as violence sweeps Paris, she invades Lucie?s physical and psychological space. She effects this invasion first by committing the faces of Lucie and her family to memory, in order to add them to her mental “register” of those slated to die in the revolution. Latter, she bursts into the young woman?s apartment in an attempt to catch Lucie mourning Draney?s imminent execution.

Dickens notes that Madame Defarge?s hatefulness does not reflect any inherent flaw, but rather results from the oppression and personal tragedy that she has suffered at the hands of the aristocracy, specially the Evremondes, to whom Darney is related by blood, and Lucie by marriage. However, the author refrains from justifying Madame Defarge?s policy of retributive justice. For just as the aristocracy?s oppression has made an oppressor of Madame Defarge herself, so will her oppression, in turn, make oppressors of her victims. Madame Defarge?s death by a bullet from her own gun----she dies in a scuffle with Miss Pross---- symbolizes Dickens?s belief that the sort of vengeful attitude embodied by Madame Defarge ultimately proves a self-damning one.

3.1.3 Victims of the revolution

The situation of darkness in France needs to be changed. People such as the Defarges prepare and arrange, and at last the Revolution come to break out. Gradually more and more people join in the revolution. One after another nobleman are sentenced to death and their heads are cut down .When the Bastille is captured and the King is tried and put to death as well as many other aristocrats, things do not go on as what they have been expected. The situation stays the same or even worse. Some innocent people

are implicated in the revolution. Charles Darnay is one of them. He is the nephew of Marquis Evermonde. To the opposite of his uncle, Darney is a kind and independent young man. Darney chooses to live in London because he can not bear associated with the cruel injustices of the French social system. Darnay displays great virtue in his rejection of the snobbish and cruel values of his uncle. He does nothing wrong, but he is put into jail and sentenced to death at last. The prisoners from the Bastille are set free, while more prisons are filled with people who have done nothing wrong again. People who once live in the bottom of class take the charge now and their heart have been full of evil. The only thing they want to do is to revenge. And these so-called "patriots" would like to see more and more innocent prisoners going to the guillotine. As the novel writes, "In everything they did were merciless, for they had been hardened in the fires of suffering and the touch of pity could make no mark on them". Equality and fairness are what people seek, which leads to the French Revolution. As a consequence, neither equality nor fairness is obtained after the revolution. This is a tragic and contradictory period, just as Dickens writes in the beginning “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way…”

3.2 Warnings to British society

3.2.1 A warning to British ruling class

A Tale of Two Cities promotes the image of a stable England by using revolutionary France as a major background to highlight the contrasts between the two countries, but Dickens seems to believe that England was heading towards an uprising on the scale of the French Revolution.

s

At that time, London, or we can say England also has a lot of social problems. The Industrial Revolution, which sweeps through Europe in the late eighteenth century, originated in England. The rapid modernization of the English economy involves a shift from rural handicraft to large-scale factory labor. Technological innovations facilitate unprecedented heights of manufacture and trade, and England leaves behind its localized, cottage-industry economy to become a centralized, hyper-capitalist juggernaut of mass production. In tandem with this transformation comes a significant shift in the nation?s demographics. A growing and impoverished working class flock to English large cities in search of work, and London is a good example. As this influx of workers into urban centers continues, the bourgeois take advantage of the surplus of labor by keeping wages low. The poor thus remain poor, and often live cramped in squalor.

In the eighteen-fifties, Charles Dickens is concerned that social problems in England,

particularly those relating to the condition of the poor, might provoke a mass reaction on the scale of the French Revolution. In a letter written in 1855, for example, he refers to the unrest of the time as follows: I believe the discontent to be so much the worse for smouldering, instead of blazing openly, that it is extremely like the general mind of France before the breaking out of the first Revolution, and is in danger of being turned into such a devil of a conflagration as never has been beheld since.

Dickens wants to take the history of French as a mirror through which he could tell the English governing class that England also has many problems and the social condition must be changed. He hopes the governors in England could learn a lesson from the French Revolution.

3.2.2 A warning to the mobs

Although Dickens promotes this view of history in which the destruction of the old makes the way for the new, he remains ambivalent about the violence accompanying the cycles of eradication. While he acknowledges the evils and oppression that motivated the peasant uprising----he does this most notably in the chapters chronicling the events that lead up to the death of the Marquis----he never goes so far as to romanticize the revolutionaries?struggles or idealize their cause. Indeed, it is with great horror that he recounts with great horror the fall of the Bastille and the ensuing chaos in the streets. The violence may serve to cleanse society of the injustice of the French aristocracy, but it nevertheless creates its own sort of pollution. In describing the peasants?carefree return to eating, playing, and loving after their bloodthirsty execution of Foulon in Chapter 22, Dickens points toward a fundamentally corrupt side of the human soul.

Dickens takes the chaos of French revolution as a mirror to the British society. The most representative character of the mobs is Madame Defarge, but she finally dies by her own gun. Dickens wants to tell the British common people that violence cannot win in the end. Dickens uses the figure of Miss Pross to emphasize power of love. As the devoted servant battles with Madame Defarge, he notes that “the vigorous tenacity of love is always so much stronger than hate.”The showdown between the two women serves also as a commentary on social order and revolution. Revolution, as embodied by Madame Defarge, may prove fiercer and wilder, but the social order that Miss Pross represents emerges as stronger and steadier. Dickens warns the British people that if there is any turbulence in Britain, violence cannot solve the social problem, and only love can bring reconciliation.

3.3 Charles Dickens’ humanistic reformist idea reflected through the historical context

3.3.1 The ideal character---- Sydney Carton

Sydney Carton proves the most dynamic character in A Tale of Two Cities. He first appears as a lazy, alcoholic attorney who cannot muster even the smallest amount of interest in his own life. He describes his existence as a supreme waste of life and takes every opportunity to declare that he cares for nothing and no one. But the reader senses, even in the initial chapters of the novel, that Carton in fact feels something that he perhaps cannot articulate. In his conversation with the recently acquitted Charles Darnay, Carton?s comments about Lucie Manette, while bitter and sardonic, betray his interest in, and budding feelings for, the gentle girl. Eventually, Carton reaches a point where he can admit his feelings to Lucie herself. Before Lucie weds Darnay, Carton professes his love to her, though he still persists in seeing himself as essentially worthless. This scene marks a vital transition for Carton and lays the foundation for the supreme sacrifice that he marks at the novel?s end.

Carton?s sacrifice of his life enables him to live in a way that he otherwise could not, for this sacrifice—the only means by which Darnay can be saved----assures Carton a place in the hearts of others and allows him to have undertaken one truly meaningful and valuable act before dying. The final passage, in which the narrator imagines and records Carton?s last thoughts, extends Carton?s life beyond the moment of his death. He will live on in Lucie and Darnay, who will feel as deeply connected to him as they do to each other. He will live on in their child, who will bear his name and ambitiously follow a path that might have been Carton?s own. Generations to come will honor his memory, endowing him with a glory that he could never have enjoyed had he continued living as S tryver?s disaffected and drunken assistant. Carton?s death emphasizes one of the novel?s simpler philosophies----that love conquers all. Carton?s love for Lucie allows him to overcome not only the purposelessness of his but also his own death. Moreover, the event constitutes a Victorian ending, in that it provides the perfect resolution to various characters? problems. It endures the continued happiness of Darney and Lucie and it represents the redemption of the once spiritually aimless Carton.

As Carton goes to the guillotine, the narrator tells us that he envisions a beautiful, idyllic Paris “rising from the abyss” and sees “the evil of this time and the previous time of which this is natural birth, gradually making expiation for itself and wearing out.” Just as the apocalyptic violence of the revolution precedes a new society?s birth, perhaps it is only in the sacrifice of his life that Carton can establish his life?s great worth. So Carton is the ideal character in A Tale of Two Cities for he represents Charles Dickens? core thoughts for history----love and sacrifice.

3.3.2 The humanistic reformist solution to social problems

Charles Dickens is a typical humanitarian, who expresses his humanitarianism completely by his novels. His humanitarianism focuses on morality as well as it bases on morality. In A Tale of Two Cities, Dickens shows much sympathy for the poor peasants and he is extremely against the merciless behavior done by the aristocrats,

but at the same time, he dislikes the violent revolution. Dickens believes love is always more powerful than resentment. In his opinion, no matter the person is rich or poor, if his behavior agrees with morality, it should be praised. If not, then it should be criticized. Therefore, facing the contradiction between the aristocrats and the poor, Dickens firmly believes the contradiction can be solved by the great love of human being. He prefers to take some reforms to reconcile the contradiction between the aristocrats and the peasants. From this point, we can know Dickens is a true humanitarian.

As a true humanitarian, Charles Dickens really hopes that the poor people could have a better life, but he objects to use violence to resist the oppression, so he is always a reformist, hoping that the ruling class could carry out some reform and solve the social problems. He sympathizes the poor working people, but he is also afraid of the revolution. He denounces the darkness in the capitalism society, but he doesn?t mean to overthrow the system. Dickens maintains that the oppressors should be educated and transformed to be kind and compassionate to eliminate social conflicts. Although this kind of view may not be practical, this humanistic reformist idea indeed provides a constructive solution to social problems. Therefore this opinion takes part in the construction of history.

4. Conclusion

This paper explores the significance of the historical context in A Tale of Two Cities from the perspective of new historicism. First, the paper begins with a brief introduction of Charles Dickens and A Tale of Two Cities and some researches on the novel. Then it comes the introduction of new historicism including the basic standpoints of new historicists, new historicism and literature and the relationships between historical context in A Tale of Two Cities and new historicism. Next the paper analyzes the cruelty of French aristocracy, brutality of those rebels, and victims in the French Revolution. Then it talks about the warnings Charles Dickens gives to the British society. At last this paper explores Charles Dickens? humanistic reformist idea reflected through the historical context.

In summary, from the perspective of new historicism, A Tale of Two Cities not only presents the readers a reliable interpretation of the French Revolution, but also gives warnings to the British society at that time and comes up with constructive solutions to the social problems, which participate in the construction of history, making the novel an exemplifying text for new historicism and reflecting the significance of the historical context in the novel.

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