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linguistics

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 What is linguistics?

1.1.1 Definition

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

1) It tries to answer the basic questions as

What is language?

How does language work?

What rules there are that govern the structure of language?

2) It probes into various problems related to language such as

What do languages have in common?

What range of variation is found among languages?

What makes language change?

To what extent are social class differences related in language?

How does a child acquire his mother tongue? ...

3) Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies language in general.

4) Linguistics is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.

1.1.2 The scope of linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Independent branches Morphology

Syntax

Semantics

Pragmatics

Sociolinguistics

Interdisciplinary branches Psycholinguistics

Applied linguistics

1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics

1) prescriptive: aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using

language

eg. Don’t say X.

descriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people usually use

eg. People don’t say X.

* Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive

It aims to set models for language users to follow;

It is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language

people use, be it correct or not.

2) synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history, and most

linguistic studies are of this type.

eg. A Grammar of Modern Greek

The Structure of Shakespeare’s English

diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.

3) speech and writing: two major media of communication

4) langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech

community

parole: the realization of langue in actual use

“If we could embrace the sum of word- images stored in the mind of all individuals, we could identify the social bond that constitutes language (langue). It is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking (parole), a grammatical system that has a potential existence in each brain, or more specifically, in the brains of a group of individuals. For language (langue) is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity. In separating language (langue) from speaking (parole) we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what is individual; and (2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.”

— Saussure, 1959: 13- 14

Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subject of linguistics.

5) competence: the idea user’s knowledge of the rules of his language performance: the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.

This is the aspect that linguists should study.

—Chomsky, 1965: 3

6) traditional grammar and modern linguistics

Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.

Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar, on the other hand, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its performance.

Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework.

* It is generally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics” in the early 20th century.

1.2 What is language?

1.2.1 Definitions of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used

for human communication.

1) Language is a system: elements of language are combined according to rules;

2) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a

3) Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound;

4) Language is human-specific.

1.2.2 Design features of language

1) arbitrariness

----By nature, there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds

----exceptions: onomatopoeic words, some compound words

* It makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.

2) productivity/creativity

----It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. ----It is unique to human language.

3) duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two

levels. It enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.

----a structure of sounds (the lower or the basic level)

----a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words (the higher level)

4) displacement

----Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

----It provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or space.

5) cultural transmission: The details of any language system are not genetically

transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.

1.2.3 Functions of language

1) main functions

The descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information, which can

be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. “The

Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever

suffered.”

The expressive function: it supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences,

prejudices, and values. “I will never go camping with the

Simpsons again.”

The social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.

“How can I help you, Sir?”

2) Roman Jakobson: identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of

them to one language function.

Addresser—Emotive (表情功能): The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic

or situation of communication. “I hate whatever they are planning for

me!”

Addressee—Conative (意动功能、意欲功能、呼吁功能): The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways to thinking. “Why

not go and see another doctor?”

Context—Referential (所指功能、指称功能、指向功能): The addresser conveys a message or information. “As far as I know, the earth’s resources are

being astonishingly wasted.”

Message—Poetic (组诗功能、娱乐功能): The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. “poetry”Contact—Phatic communication (寒暄功能): The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. “Hi! How

are you this morning?”

Code—Metalinguistic (元语言功能): The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. “Let me tell you what the word anorexia

means.”

3) Halliday (systemic-functional grammar)

(1) Getting to know you

> Write down 3 statements about yourself, one of which is false!

> You will then take turns to share these 3 statements in your group, and let your group members guess which statement is false, and why they think it is false.

> Once everyone in the group has shared, decide on who has the most interesting statements.

> This person will then have the privilege of sharing with the whole class.

(2) The ideational function (概念功能): is to organize the speaker or writer’s

experience of the real or imaginary world.

It is broader than descriptive function

above, because it also includes the

expression of the speaker’s attitude,

evaluation, his feelings and emotions.

eg. Peter is a teacher.

Peter played tennis yesterday.

Peter enjoys travelling.

Peter advises his students to study hard.

The interpersonal function (交际功能): is to indicate, establish, or maintain social

relationships between people. It

expresses the speaker’s role in the speech

situation, his personal commitment and

assessment of the social relationship

between the addressee and himself.

eg. * Who is speaking/writing to whom? Is the relationship between them

equal/unequal? What in the text tells us this?

* Is the writer-reader relationship intimate/distant? How can we tell?

* Is the speaker/writer expressing any kind of involvement/emotion towards

the hearer/reader or the subject matter? How can we tell from the text?

The textual function (语篇功能): is to organize written or spoken texts in such a

manner that they are coherent within

themselves and fit the particular situation in

which they are used.

In short: the textual metafunction of language allows us to organise ideas and meanings in a text, to signal prominence and connections in a text, and to signal how a message is structured.

eg. lexical repetition—content

conjunction—logical relationship

1.3 Assignments

1. What are the design features of language?

2. List the main functions of language and think of your own examples for illustration.

3. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?

英语2Linguistics题目及答案

Quiz of Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False. 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( T) 2. Linguistics studies particular language, not language in general. ( F) 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. ( F ) 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. ( T ) 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. ( T) 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistics study. ( F) 7. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. ( F ) 8. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. ( T) 9. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. ( F ) 10. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure. ( F) II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given. 1. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k nowledge of the rules of his language. 2. Langue refers to the a bstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 3. D uality is one of the desing features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units. 4. Language is a system of a rbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 5. P arole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 6. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such application is generally known as a pplied linguistics. 7. Language is p roductive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before. 8. Linguistics is generally defined as the s cientific study of language. 9. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d escriptive. 10. Modern linguistics regards the written language as s econdary . III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.

商法名词解释

1. 商法是调整商事交易主体在其商行为中所形成的法律关系,即商事关系法律规范的总称。 2. 形式意义上的商法,是指奉行民商分立立法原则的国家在民法典之外制定的以“商法”命名的法典。 3. 实质意义上的商法是指一切调整商事关系的法律规范的总称。商法的形式包括各种有关商事的专门法规;法规范不仅仅存在于商法典之中,而且还大量地存在于民法、行政法以及其他法律、法规和判例之中。 其概念的理论理论着眼点为商事法律规范的性质、规范的作用、规范的构成、规范实施的方式等在理论上的有机统一。 4. 商法的原则是指集中体现商法的性质和宗旨,调整商事法律关系必须遵守的基本准则。它是制定商法典的根本出发点,更是适用商法的指导原则。 5. 商法的调整对象,是指商法作为特殊的法律规范体系对现实生活发生作用的范围. 5.商事法律关系,是指因商行为的实施而发生的权利义务关系。具体来说,它是指商主体及其他民事主体在实施商行为的过程中所形成的权利义务关系。 6. 商法的体系是指商法作为一个独立的法律部门,其内部具有逻辑联系的各项商事法律制度所组成的系统结构。 7. 商主体是指依照法律规定参与商事法律关系,能够以自己的名义从事商行为,享受权利和承担义务的人,包括个人和组织。 8. 固定商人,指以营利为目的,依法组织完整的机构,有计划地、反复连续地从事一种或多种商事行为,在经营中全部法律行为适用商法的商人。 9.拟制商人,指虽经商事登记,但仅从事小商人的业务或不从事商事行为的人,法律将其视为商人。 10.表见商人,是指虽非完全商人,也未在商事登记簿上注册登记,但已经以商人的表象从事了商行为,而应被视为商人的人。 11. .商法人是依法定的构成要件和程序设立的,拥有法人资格,参与商事法律关系,依法独立享有权利和承担义务的组织。 12. 国有商法人,由国家投资设立的从事生产经营的,具有独立权利能力和行为能力,并获得法人资格的企业或公司。 13.集体商法人,由公民和集体单位组合而成、从事生产和经营活动、具有独立权利能力和行为能力,能够独立承担法律责任并获得法人资格的集体商事组织。 14.合营或合资商法人,如果是不同投资主体共同投资组建的,可以是有限责任公司和股份有限公司。 15.私营商法人,由私人投资经营而取得法人资格,投资者以其出资额为限,商法人以全部财产对外承担责任的商事组织。 16.外商投资法人,外国投资者根据中国的法律规定,在中国境内投资设立的商业企业。 17. 商合伙,是指两个或两个以上的自然人、法人或其他组织按照法律和合伙协议的规定设立,普通合伙人对合伙经营所产生的债务承担无限连带责任,有限合伙人对合伙债务承担有限责任的商事组织。 注:商合伙作为商主体,具有从事商行为的权利能力和行为能力,但不具有完全责任能力。 18. 个人合伙是指两个以上自然人,按照合伙协议,各自提供资金、实物、技术等,合伙经营,共同劳动;投入的财产由个人所有,由合伙人同共使用,合伙经营积累的财产由合伙人共有;发生亏损由合伙人负连带清偿责任的商事组织。 19.合伙型联营是指企业事业单位之间依照联营合同组建的共同出资、共同经营、共享利润、共同承担无限连带责任的商事组织。 20.合伙企业,是指两个或两个以上的自然人、法人或其他组织按照法律和合伙协议的规定

第一章语言学导论解析

第一章语言学导论 Chapter1 Invitations to Linguistics Linguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as well as linguistics and other disciplines. Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能,人机对话,机器翻译 The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself. Definition of Linguistics How do you define linguistics? What is linguistics? ——Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language. What are we going to learn about linguistics? 1. It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics. 语音学(phonetics);音系学(phonology);形态学(morphology);句法学(syntax) —Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学(semantics) ; 语用学(pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics——interdisciplinary learning Saussure, father of modern linguistics(现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast. 尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性,给它定义明确的研究对象,将它从对其他学科的 依赖中解放出来。然而,随着时间的推移,语言学和其他学科的联系越来越密切。Psycholinguistics Psycholinguistics, as implied by the name, is the study of psychological aspects of language. It usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. 心理语言学,顾名思义,是对语言的心理方面的研究,它通常研究的是与语言使用相关的 心理状态和心理活动。比如语言习得,语言的理解,语言的生成等等。(chapter 9/chapter11) Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics, as implied by the name, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguistics attempts to look at language structures by paying attention to language use in a social context and on the other hand tries to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 这就是社会与语言的关系,一方面通过社会语境中语言使用情况的调查了解语言结构的问 题,另一方面又通过语言现象的分析了解社会构成的问题。 Research Focus1 Cross-cultural Communication There exists a close relationship between language and culture. Language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use. 语言是文化的载体,具有不可替代的重要性;文化通过语言得以凸现,其表现力得到充分展示。 心理学家罗杰斯(Rogers,1961), 真正的交流建立在理解基础上的倾听。 - 1 -

商法名词解释[1]

最重点的名词解释 1、商法:是以商事关系为调整对象的法律规范的总称。 2、商事关系:是指由商法所调整的商人从事市场经营活动所形成的社会关系,包括商事组织关系和商事交易关系。 3、营业自由是指在不违反法律的强制性规定和不违背公序良俗的前提下,任何人都享有组织营业的自由和从事营业活动的自由。 4、商主体:俗称为商人,是指依法取得商事主体资格,以自己的名义实施经营行为并能够独立享有和承担商事权利和义务的个人和组织。 5、商事能力包括商事权利能力和商事行为能力。 6、商事权利能力:是指据以充当商事主体,享有商事权利和承担商事义务的法律地位和法律资格,又称商事主体资格。 7、商事行为能力:是指商事主体据以独立参加商事法律关系、以自己的商事法律行为取得商事权利或承担商事义务的法律资格。 8、商业名称:又称商号,是商主体用以在营业商表示自己与其他商主体相区别的名称。 9、商事账簿:是指商主体为了表明其财产状况和经营状况而依法制作的用来记载其营业活动和资本运动状况的书面簿册。 10、商行为:又称商事行为,是指商主体所从事的以营利为目的的营业行为。 11、个人独资企业:指依法在中国境内设立的,由一个自然人投资,财产为投资个人所有,投资人以其个人财产对企业债务承担无限责任的经营实体。 12、合伙:是由合伙人共同约定出资,为了共同的目的,实行共同经营的联合体。 13、合伙企业:是两个以上的合伙人的集合,经过商事登记程序设立的经营性主体,具有团体的属性。 14、普通合伙企业:指由普通合伙人组成,合伙人对合伙企业债务承担无限连带责任的合伙企业。 15、合伙协议:是指两个以上合伙人为了设立合伙企业,实现共同的经济目的而达成的协议 16、入伙:指合伙企业成立后,合伙人之外的第三人加入合伙企业并取得合伙人资格或地位的法律关系。 17、退伙:指合伙人退出合伙企业,从而丧失其合伙人资格的法律行为。 18、法定退伙:指非依合伙人本人的意思,而依法律规定的条件进行的退伙。 19、除名退伙:是指某一合伙人因其行为,经其他合伙人一致要求而被强制退出合伙企业的退伙。 20、任意退伙:指声明退伙,是指依据合伙人自己的意思表示所进行的退伙。 21、特殊的普通合伙企业:是某种在债务承担方面存在特殊规则的普通合伙企业、 22、有限合伙:指由普通合伙和有限合伙依法设立的一种商业组织,其中普通合伙人对合伙组织的债务承担无限责任,有限合伙人仅以认缴的出资额危险对合伙组织的债务承担有限责任。 23、母公司:指拥有另一个公司的股权或资本达到实际控股程度,对其经营管理活动有控制权的公司。 24、子公司:指资本或股份的大部分为另一个公司所控制,且其经营管理活动受其制约的公司。子公司有其独立的财产和法人资格。 25、总公司:也称本公司,指从组织上、业务上管辖和控制其他公司的总机构。 26、分公司:指从业务上、组织上受其他公司管辖的分支机构,在法律上不具有法人资格。 27、公司法:是国家制定的调整公司在设立、组织、活动和终止过程中所发生的社会关系的法律规范的总和。 28、发起设立:也称单纯设立、共同设立,指公司的资本全部由发起人认购,不同发起人之外的任何人募集的设立方式。 29、募集设立:是指发起人只认购公司股份的一部分,其余部分向社会公开招募或者向特定对象募集的设立方式。 30、公司资本:也称公司的注册资本,指公司成立时由公司章程规定的、由股东出资形成的公司财产总额。

语言学 Linguistics

Language and Cognition Cognitive Linguistics What Is Cognitive Linguistics? Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s. It is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world. Main Points in Cognitive Linguistics Construal and Construal Operations Categorization Image Schemas Metaphor Metonymy Blending Theory Construal and Construal Operations Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc. Attention/ Salience Judgment/Comparison Perspective/Situatedness Construal and Construal Operations : Attention/ Salience The operation in salience have to do with our direction of attention towards sth. that is salient to us. In cognition, we direct our attention to the activation of conceptual structures. We use certain linguistic expressions to provoke certain patterns of activation. Construal and Construal Operations : Judgment/Comparison The construal operations of judgment/ comparison have to do with judging sth. by comparing it to sth. else. The figure-ground alignment apply to space, with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. Static and dynamic figure/ ground Trajector for a moving figure Landmark for the ground of a moving figure Categorization Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. There are three levels in categories. Basic level Super-ordinate level Subordinate level Metaphor Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of another. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. Lakoff and John classify conceptual metaphors into three categories Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors Structural metaphors Orientational metaphors Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors Ontological metaphors means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc. as entities and substances. Three Categories of Metaphor Structural metaphors Structural metaphors allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Three Categories of Metaphor Orientational metaphors Orientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation Metonymy Metonymy is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain Two Conceptual Configurations Whole ICM and its part(s) Parts of an ICM Metonymy — Whole ICM and its part(s) Thing-and-Part ICM Scale ICM Constitution ICM Event ICM Category-and-Member ICM

商法名词解释简答题大全

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