托福阅读听力背景知识

1

关于美国的历史

The continent's first inhabitants walked into North America across what is now the Bering Strait from Asia. For the next 20,000 years these pioneering settlers were essentially left alone to develop distinct and dynamic cultures. In the modern US, their descendants include the Pueblo people in what is now New Mexico; Apache in Texas; Navajo in Arizona, Colorado and Utah; Hopi in Arizona; Crow in Montana; Cherokee in North Carolina; and Mohawk and Iroquois in New York State.

The Norwegian explorer Leif Eriksson was the first European to reach North America, some 500 years before a disoriented Columbus accidentally discovered 'Indians' in Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti) in 1492. By the mid-1550s, much of the Americas had been poked and prodded by a parade of explorers from Spain, Portugal, England and France.

The first colonies attracted immigrants looking to get rich quickly and return home, but they were soon followed by migrants whose primary goal was to colonize. The Spanish founded the first permanent European settlement in St Augustine, Florida, in 1565; the French moved in on Maine in 1602, and Jamestown, Virginia, became the first British settlement in 1607. The first Africans arrived as 'indentured（合同的，契约的）laborers' with the Brits a year prior to English Puritan pilgrims' escape of religious persecution（迫害）. The pilgrims founded a colony at Plymouth Rock, Massachusetts, in 1620 and signed the famous Mayflower Compact - a declaration of

self-government that would later be echoed in the Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution. British attempts to assert authority in its 13 North American colonies led to the French and Indian War (1757-63). The British were victorious but were left with a nasty war debt, which they tried to recoup（赔偿，付还）by imposing new taxes. The rallying cry 'no taxation without representation' united the colonies, who ceremoniously dumped caffeinated cargo overboard during the Boston Tea Party. Besieged British general Cornwallis surrendered to American commander George Washington five years later at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. In the 19th century, America's mantra was 'Manifest Destiny.' A combination of land purchases, diplomacy and outright wars of conquest had by 1850 given the US roughly its present shape. In 1803, Napoleon dumped the entire Great Plains for a pittance（微薄收入）, and Spain chipped in with Florida in 1819. The Battle of the Alamo during the 1835 Texan Revolution paved the way for Texan independence from Mexico, and the war with Mexico (1846-48) secured most of the southwest, including California.

The systematic annihilation（消灭，歼灭）of the buffalo hunted by the Plains Indians, encroachment（侵犯）on their lands, and treaties not worth the paper they were written on led to Native Americans being herded into reservations, deprived of both their livelihoods and their spiritual connection to their land. Nineteenth-century immigration drastically altered the cultural landscape as settlers of predominantly British stock were joined by Central Europeans and Chinese, many attracted by the 1849 gold rush in California. The South remained firmly committed to an agrarian life heavily reliant on African American slave labor. Tensions were on the rise when abolitionist Abraham Lincoln was elected president in 1860. The South seceded from （脱离）the Union, and the Civil War, by far the bloodiest war in America's history, began the

following year. The North prevailed（胜利）in 1865, freed the slaves and introduced universal adult male suffrage（选举权）. Lincoln's vision for reconstruction, however, died with his assassination. America's trouncing of the Spaniards in 1898 marked the USA's ascendancy as a superpower and woke the country out of its isolationist slumber.

The US still did its best not to get its feet dirty in WWI's trenches, but finally capitulated（停止抵抗，有条件投降）in 1917, sending over a million troops to help sort out the pesky（讨厌的，棘手的）Germans. Postwar celebrations were cut short by Prohibition in 1920, which banned alcohol in the country. The 1929 stock-market crash signaled the start of the Great Depression and eventually brought about Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal, which sought to lift the country back to prosperity. After the Japanese dropped in uninvited on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the US played a major role in defeating the Axis powers. Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 not only ended the war with Japan, but ushered in the nuclear age. The end of WWII segued into the Cold War - a period of great domestic prosperity and a surface uniformity belied by paranoia and betrayal. Politicians like Senator Joe McCarthy took advantage of the climate to fan anticommunist flames, while the USSR and USA stockpiled nuclear weapons and fought wars by proxy in Korea, Africa and Southeast Asia. Tensions between the two countries reached their peak in 1962 during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

The 1960s was a decade of profound social change, thanks largely to the Civil Rights movement, Vietnam War protests and the discovery of sex, drugs and rock & roll. The Civil Rights movement gained momentum in 1955 with a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama. As a nonviolent mass protest movement, it aimed at breaking down segregation and regaining the vote for disfranchised Southern blacks. The movement peaked in 1963 with Martin Luther King Jr's 'I have a dream speech' in Washington, DC, and the passage of the landmark 1964 Civil Rights Act and 1965 Voting Rights Act. Meanwhile, America's youth were rejecting the conformity of the previous decade, growing their hair long and smoking lots of dope. 'Tune in, turn on, drop out' was the mantra of a generation who protested heavily (and not disinterestedly) against the war in Vietnam. Assassinations of prominent political leaders - John and Robert Kennedy, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr - took a little gloss off the party, and the American troops mired in Vietnam took off the rest. NASA's moon landing in 1969 did little to restore national pride. In 1974 Richard Nixon became the first US president to resign from office, due to his involvement in the cover-up of the Watergate burglaries, bringing American patriotism to a new low.

The 1970s and '80s were a period of technological advancement and declining industrialism. Self image took a battering at the hands of Iranian Ayatollah Khomeni. A conservative backlash, symbolized by the election and popular two-term presidency of actor Ronald Reagan, sought to put some backbone in the country. The US then concentrated on bullying its poor neighbors in Central America and the Caribbean, meddling in the affairs of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama and Grenada. The collapse of the Soviet Bloc's 'Evil Empire' in 1991 left the US as the world's sole superpower, and the Gulf War in 1992 gave George Bush the opportunity to lead a coalition supposedly representing a 'new world order' into battle against Iraq. Domestic matters, such as health reform, gun ownership, drugs, racial tension, gay rights, balancing the budget, the tenacious Whitewater scandal and the Monica Lewinsky 'Fornigate' affair tended to overshadow international concerns during the Clinton administration. In a bid to kickstart its then-ailing economy, the USA signed NAFTA, a free-trade agreement with Canada and Mexico, in 1993, invaded Haiti in its role of upholder of democracy in 1994, committed thousands of troops to

peacekeeping operations in Bosnia in 1995, hosted the Olympics in 1996 and enjoyed, over the past few years, the fruits of a bull market on Wall St. The 2000 presidential election made history by being the most highly contested race in the nation's history.

The Democratic candidate, Al Gore, secured the majority of the popular vote but lost the election when all of Florida's electoral college votes went to George W Bush, who was ahead of Gore in that state by only 500 votes. Demands for recounts, a ruling by the Florida Supreme Court in favor of partial recounts, and a handful of lawsuits generated by both parties were brought to a halt when the US Supreme Court split along party lines and ruled that all recounts should cease. After five tumultuous weeks, Bush was declared the winner. The early part of Bush's presidency saw the US face international tension, with renewed violence in the Middle East, a spy-plane standoff with China and nearly global disapproval of US foreign policy with regard to the environment. On the domestic front, a considerably weakened economy provided challenges for national policymakers. Whether the US can continue to hold onto its dominant position on the world stage and rejuvenate its economy remains to be seen.

2

英属北美殖民地的建立（1607--1733）

北美洲原始居民为印第安人。16-18世纪，正在进行资本原始积累的西欧各国相继入侵北美洲。法国人建立了新法兰西(包括圣劳伦斯流域下游大潮区，密西西比河流域等处)；西班牙人建立了新西班牙(包括墨西哥和美国西南部的广大地区)。1607年，英国建立了第1个殖民据点—詹姆士城，此后在大西洋沿岸陆续建立了13个殖民地。到达殖民地的大多数是西欧贫苦的劳动人民，也有贵族、地主、资产阶级，以英国人、爱尔兰人、德意志人和荷兰人最多。移民中有逃避战祸和宗教迫害者，有自愿和非自愿的“契约奴”以及乞丐、罪犯；还有从非洲被贩运来的黑人。

“五月花”号(Mayflower)

独立战争（1774—1783）

英法为争夺海上霸权和掠夺殖民地而进行的七年战争，以英国胜利告终。英国在北美接管了加拿大，控制了密西西比河以东的新法兰西，对北美殖民地全面加强控制，宣告阿巴拉契亚山脉以西为王室产业，禁止殖民地人民染指；并征收重税，严厉缉私，限制经济活动，严重损害了殖民地各阶层人民的经济利益。从1619年弗吉尼亚建立议会起，各殖民地相继成立议会，与英国相抗衡，1765

年9个殖民地举行抗议印花税大会，掀起反抗怒潮。

18世纪70年代英国进一步执行高压政策，1770年波士顿惨案发生。1773年通过了茶税法，引起波士顿倾茶事件。1774年颁布了5项不可容忍的法令(诸如封闭波士顿港，增派英国驻军，取消马萨诸塞自治权，确立英国对殖民地的司法权等)，从政治上军事上加紧对殖民地的控制与镇压。1772-1774年，各殖民地普遍成立通讯委员会，领导抗英斗争。1774年9月5日，除佐治亚外的各殖民地代表在费城召开了第1届大陆会议，通过了和英国断绝一切贸易关系的决议,继而通过“关于殖民地权利和怨恨的宣言”，向英王呈递请愿书。1775年4月18日，在波士顿附近的列克星敦和康科德，殖民地爱国者打响了反抗的枪声，揭开了独立战争的序幕。5月，第2届大陆会议召开。

次年7月大陆会议通过独立宣言，宣布13个殖民地脱离英国独立。

独立战争开始时，双方实力悬殊，战争进行了8年。到1781年10月，美、法联军攻下英军最后据点约克镇，独立战争基本结束。1783年英美签订巴黎和约。独立战争时期涌现出一批杰出的政治家，如大陆军的总司令G．华盛顿、《独立宣言》的起草人T．杰斐逊、外交家B．富兰克林、文化战士T．潘恩。

印花税条例(Stamp Act)

波士顿惨案(Boston Massacre)

大陆会议(Continental Congress)

独立战争(War of lndependence)

独立宣言(Declaration of Independence)

3

独立的民族主权国家的建成（1781-1814）

在战争过程中，大陆会议制订了邦联条例，1781-1787年13州组成了邦联国会，宣布成立美利坚共和国。1787年，在费城召开制宪会议，大州和小州的代表经过争论，同意每州均选出两名参议员；在蓄奴制问题上，北部对南部作出了重大妥协，默认奴隶制存在，在征税及分配众议员席位方面，南部黑奴均以3／5的人口计算。会议最后制定了宪法草案。这是世界上第1部成文宪法。1788年6月由9个州批准生效。根据宪法，美国建成立法、行政、司法三权分立、相互制衡的联邦制国家。后又增加了宪法前10条修正案(后即以“权利法案”著称)。该法案于1791年12月，经11

个州批准生效。

1789年联邦政府成立。4月，华盛顿就任美国首届总统(1792年连任)。在国内外政策出现分歧的过程中，财政部长A．汉密尔顿派组织了联邦党，主张中央集权，外交上亲英，控制了联邦政府的权力。国务卿T．杰斐逊派主张维护国内人民民主权利，同情法国革命，组织了民主共和党。1793年华盛顿在欧洲列强联合干涉法国革命时，采取中立政策。次年11月，联邦政府和英国签订了损害美国主权的杰伊条约。亲英和亲法成为联邦党和民主共和党在外交政策上的分野。在内政方面，联邦政府制定关税条例，建立银行，稳定经济。

1801年，民主共和党T．杰斐逊出任总统。杰斐逊政府废除上述4项法令，削减开支，减轻税收，取消酒税，鼓励农产品出口。1803年从法国手中购买了面积达200多万平方公里的路易斯安那。英国一直不甘心丧失北美殖民地。英舰在公海上继续拦截美国船只，强制征用美国海员。为维护航海自由，1812—1814年美国进行了第2次对英战争。除海战外，优势在英军方面。1814年8月，英军曾攻占华盛顿首府，焚烧总统府及会。但随后美国取得胜利。1814年12月，英美在今比利时的根特签订和约。这次战争使美国得以摆脱英国政治上的控制和经济上的渗透，成为一个完全独立的民族主权国家。

美英巴黎条约(Treaty of Parise,1783)

美英战争(1812)(War of l812)

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南北战争前南北经济的不同发展（1814—1861）

19世纪上半叶，美国领土逐渐由大西洋沿岸扩张到太平洋沿岸。经济发生了显著变化，北部、南

部经济沿着不同方向发展。北部发展海上贸易，扩大航运业。进行大量的资本原始积累。早在1790年就在罗得岛建立了第l座棉纺厂。此后，陆续出现其他工厂。从19世纪初期起，大量资金投放于工商业，工业生产得到发展。在大力引进西欧科学技术的同时，鼓励创造和发明。50年代，工业化迅速推进。1860年，美国工业生产居世界第4位。2／3的制造品由东北部生产。西欧移民大批涌入，并向西迁移，为发展经济提供了自由雇佣劳动力。但在南部，以奴隶劳动为基础的棉花种植园经济不断扩大，由大西洋沿岸各州扩展到得克萨斯境内。在西部新开辟的地区，是推广自由劳动制还是奴隶制，南部和北部的代言人争执不休，成为全国政治斗争的主题。1820年北部对南部作出让步，达成《密苏里妥协案》，双方争执暂时乎息。

西进运动(Westwood Movement)

密苏里妥协案(Missouri Compromise)

南北战争前的外交和政治（1814—1861）

1823年，美国总统J．门罗发表了“门罗宣言”。反对欧洲列强干涉西半球事务。1846-1848年，美国发动对墨西哥战争，把得克萨斯、新墨西哥和加利福尼亚并入美国领土。1814年美英战争即将结束时，联邦党召集哈特福德会议，图谋分裂联邦，但遭失败，因而瓦解。联邦党的衰落标志着商业资本开始向工业资本过渡。1816-1824年，美国进入民主共和党一党执政时期，它代表北部资产阶级和南部奴隶主的共同利益，习称“和谐时期”。以后民主共和党分裂，政治力量重新组合。1828年，成立了民主党，推选A．杰克逊为总统候选人，杰克逊当选并连任总统至1837年3月。1834年辉格党成立。杰克逊政府将印第安人迁至密西西比河以西，并制止了南卡罗来纳州借口高关税法而掀起的分裂危机。政府废除了贫民因负债而受监禁的法令，普及了白人男子的普选权，并进行了一些民主改革，习称“杰克逊民主”。1828-1856年，民主党和辉格党成为对峙的两大政党。除1840年和1848年两届总统竞选由辉格党获胜外，其余各届总统竞选均由民主党获胜。

随着南部和北部两种不同社会经济制度斗争的激化和黑奴反抗的不断掀起，群众性的反奴运动广泛开展。1840年，主张废奴运动的“自由党”成立。1848年，废奴主义者，民主党和辉格党内反对奴隶制的人组织了自由土壤党，以在西部地域建立自由州为宗旨。1850年，双方经过争执，达成妥协，国会通过严峻的逃奴追缉法。1854年国会通过堪萨斯—内布拉斯加法案，取消了奴隶州和自由州的地理疆界线，也就使密苏里妥协案随之废除，遭到北部工业资产阶级的强烈反对。1854年成立了共和党，以反对奴隶制为宗旨。1856年。民主党J．布坎南当选总统，此时实际上民主党已成为代表奴隶主利益的政党。1857年最高法院作出斯科特判决案，其法律涵意是使奴隶制的规模推向全国。1859年J．布朗领导的反奴隶制的武装起义被镇压。1860年总统选举中，共和党候选人A．林肯获胜。蓄谋叛乱已久的南部奴隶主集团决定脱离联邦，并于1861年2月另行成立宣布维护奴隶制的南部同盟。

门罗主义(Monron Doctrine)

废奴运动(Abolition Movement)

堪萨斯—内布拉斯加法案(Kansas-Nebraska Act)

约翰·布朗起义(John Brown's Rebellion)

4

南北战争及重建时期（1861-1877）

1861年4月，南部同盟不宣而战，占领萨姆特炮台，南北战争爆发。次年5月，林肯颁布《宅地

法》，允许耕种西部土地5年的农民，在缴纳10美元证件费后获得160英亩土地的使用权，使在西部垦殖的广大农民，站在废奴派一边，孤立了南部同盟。1863年1月1日，林肯颁布的《解放宣言》生效，叛乱各州的黑人奴隶都被视为自由人，允许参军，短期内即有18．6万名黑人参加联邦军队。1864年联邦军队占领佐治亚的亚特兰大，将南部同盟截成两段，取得了决定的胜利。1865年4月9日，南部同盟军总司令R．E．李将军投降。南北战争以联邦胜利宣告结束。4月14日；林肯遇刺，副总统A．约翰逊继任总统。约翰逊对南部种植园主推行妥协政策。11月，密西西比州首先颁布“黑人法典”，对黑人残酷迫害。恐怖组织三K党于1866年成立，对刚获得自由的黑人施以私刑。在这种混乱局面下，共和党激进派占优势的国会提出弹劾总统案(以少1票未通过)，并分别于1865、1868和1870年通过了宪法第13条修正案(宣布在美国奴隶制不复存在)、第14条修正案(黑人被承认为美国公民)、第15条修正案(给黑人以选举权)。1867年3月，国会通过重新建设南部法案，对南部实行军管。1867-1877年，南部进行民主重建，各州成立了黑人和白人联合执政的政权，制订了民主的进步法令，14名黑人当选为众议员，两名黑人当选为参议员。R.B.海斯就任总统，标志着民主重建的结束。

南北战争(CivilWar)

宅地法(Homestead Act)

解放宣言(Emancipation Proclamation)

重建时期(Reconstruction)

19世纪后半叶经济迅速发展(1877—1900）

南北战争后，由于南部种植园制度的废除，为资本主义在全国范围的发展创造了条件；造船业和机器制造业迅速发展，横贯大陆的4条铁路建成，西部广大土地的垦殖，边疆的消失，促进了国内统一市场的形成和扩大。在中西部、远西部和南部日益开拓进程中，各地区发展了具有本地特点的工业。外国移民的大量涌入，提供了丰富的劳动力，使北美能够大规模进行农业生产。19世纪后半叶农业机械化迅速发展。从1860-1916年，耕地面积由4．07亿英亩增加到8．79亿英亩，改良的土地面积扩大了3倍多，小麦和玉米的产量约增加了3倍多。农业中大生产排挤和兼并小生产，在以工业为主的北部，农业日益采用集约耕作，在其他地区，大农场数字逐渐增加，1900年美国农产品总数的一半是由1／6的大农户生产的，形成了美国式农业资本主义发展道路。

19世纪后半叶，科学技术领域有重要发明和突破，其中首推电力的应用；1876年A．G：贝尔发明电话机，1886年T．A．爱迪生制造了电灯，1892年杜里雅兄弟试制成功汽车，1903年莱特兄弟试制飞机航行成功。电力广泛应用于工业，导致美国经济的全面发展。1880年工业在全国生产总值中的比重已超过农业，工业生产总值由1860年的世界第4位，跃居至1894年的首位。美国成为高度发达的资本主义国家。

5

第一次世界大战前的内外政策（1889—1914）

1889年美国召开泛美会议，1898年美西战争爆发，美国击败了西班牙，夺取了加勒比海的古巴和波多黎各、太平洋的关岛及菲律宾群岛，接着合并了夏威夷群岛。1903年美国夺取了巴拿马运河区。在远东，1899年美国提出对华“门户开放”政策。美国在1904-1905年日俄战争中支持日本。在

日俄战争结束后，美日双方经过谈判，于1908年签订了罗脱—高平协定。在1912年总统选举中，民主党总统候选人T．W．威尔逊上台。威尔逊以“新自由”作为号召进行改革，降低关税，建立联邦储备银行制度，通过克莱顿反托拉斯法(1914)，征收累进所得税。该时期美国在对外政策上，对西半球墨西哥、尼加拉瓜等国进行了武装干涉。

第一次世界大战至20世纪20年代末的美国

第一次世界大战开始后，美国宣布中立，向交战双方提供军火，不久又对协约国进行贷款。1916年，威尔逊当选连任。1917年，美国在德国潜艇击沉美国船只后，于4月6日对德宣战。大战期间由于国外移民中断，黑人大量北移，并人伍出国作战，开拓了视野。1918年11月，威尔逊签署对德停战协定。第一次世界大战促进了美国的经济繁荣。战后，美国由欠60亿美元的债务国而成为贷出100亿美元的债权国，美国成为最富有的国家。1921年共和党W．G．哈定执政，正值美国陷入全面经济萧条。他提出“工业正常化”和”抢救资本主义”政策；1923-1929年世界资本主义进人相对稳定时期。美国国内由于固定资本更新，建筑业兴起，汽车和钢铁工业等扩大以及商品和资本输出激增，1923年美国工商业出现了新高涨。与此同时，美国第2次企业“合并浪潮”(即进一步托拉斯化)，遍及银行业、工业部门，特别是水、电、煤气公用事业，甚至扩展到零售商业部门。共和党人C，柯立芝执政时期是美国经济繁荣时期。私人垄断资本大为发展。但由于国内新兴工业畸形发展与生产过剩，使国民经济各部门比例严重失调，生产和消费脱节，农业长期陷于慢性危机，1929年10月美国首先爆发经济危机，随后资本主义各国陆续陷入1929-1933年世界性经济危机。

大萧条（Great Depression)

=====================

20世纪30年代的美国

民主党人F.D．罗斯福1933年就任第32届总统。罗斯福政府实行了由国家对经济进行广泛干预、调节的“新政”，整顿金融，复兴工农业，举办救济事业等，挽救了美国的严重经济危机，并加强了国家垄断资本主义。1933年11月，美国与苏联建交，对拉丁美洲采取“睦邻政策”。1937年新的经济危机再度出现。次年，罗斯福采用扩大赤字开支的办法，使这次危机有所缓解；第二次世界大战爆发后，美国重振军备，才使经济得到恢复，走向繁荣。

新政（New Deal）

睦邻政策（Good Neighbor Policy）

6

第二次世界大战期间的美国

1939年9月德国进攻波兰，第二次世界大战全面爆发。罗斯福于1941年3月签署《租借法》，向与德意日作战的国家提供物资。8月14日，罗斯福与英国首相丘吉尔发表《大西洋宪章》，9月24日苏联政府声明同意其基本原则，接着召开莫斯科三国会议，奠定了美英苏战时合作的基础。12月7日，日本偷袭珍珠港，重创美国太平洋舰队。次日，美英对日宣战。英美在开始时接连败退。

1942年5月，美军在中途岛海战中击退日军。同年底至次年初，美国在瓜达尔卡纳尔岛战役中击败日军，美军由守势转为攻势，太平洋战争出现转折。l942年1月1日，美、英、苏、中等26

个国家签署《联合国家宣言》。8月英美联军在北非登陆。1943年2月斯大林格勒战役的胜利，使欧洲反法西斯战争的局势发生根本性变化。同年7月，美英军队在西西里岛登陆。9月在意大利南部登陆。10月意大利投降。1943年11月，罗斯福、丘吉尔、斯大林举行德黑兰会议。1944年6月，英美等国的联军在法国诺曼底登陆，开辟了欧洲第二战场。4月12日，罗斯福逝世，H．S．杜鲁门继任总统。5月，德国宣布无条件投降。7月，美英苏三国首脑举行波茨坦会议，美英就处理德国、波兰等问题与苏联达成协议。美英中发表了波茨坦公告，要求日本无条件投降。美苏就苏军对日作战取得了一致意见。8月6日，美军在广岛投下策1颗原子弹；8月8日苏联宣布对日作战，9日美军又在长崎投下第2颗原子弹，日本投降，第二次世界大战结束。杜鲁门任命D．麦克阿瑟为盟国驻日最高统帅，美军进驻日本，实现了由美国独家控制日本的局面。

大西洋宪章(Atlantic Charter)

开罗会议(Cairo Conference)

德黑兰会议(Teheran Conference)

雅尔塔会议(Yalta Conference)

波茨坦会议(Potsdame Conferenc)

第二次世界大战后的美国

第二次世界大战中，由于扩军参战，并大量供应盟国军火物资，美国成为盟国的兵工厂，出现了战时经济繁荣，国家垄断资本有更大发展。美国利用参战的机会，控制了世界许多重要战略据点，建立了军事基地；杜鲁门政府对外推行冷战政策，提出杜鲁门主义，制订马歇尔计划，筹划成立了北大西洋公约组织。

在内政方面，杜鲁门提出“公平施政”纲领，但收效甚微。1950年6月，朝鲜战争爆发。1952年共和党人D．D．艾森豪威尔以结束朝鲜战争的许诺当选为美国总统。1953年7月签定了朝鲜停战协定。

艾森豪威尔政府在1953-1954年经济危机的侵袭下，为缓和国内外紧张形势，在内政外交方面作了调整，扩大了社会保险法的实施范围，加强科研工作的国家化，进一步发展宇航事业。1955年7月美、英、法、苏四国首脑会议召开，国际形势有所缓和。1957年苏联成功地发射第1颗人造地球卫星，向美国尖端科学领先地位进行挑战。1958年，美国发射人造地球卫星，从而使美苏军备竞赛进入宇宙空间竞争。1969年7月20日，美国宇宙飞船“阿波罗—11”号登月舱在月球着陆。

在第二次世界大战及朝鲜战争期间，由于有黑人参加作战，军队中取消了种族隔离制度，这一事实推动了国内黑人争取民权的斗争。1954年最高法院作出“布朗控诉教育局判决案”，宣布长期统治教育领域的“隔离但平等”原则为违宪。1955年12月，亚拉巴马州蒙哥马利市的黑人在M．L．金的领导下，进行长达381天的抵制乘车方面种族隔离的运动，黑人又在餐馆展开静坐运动，以抗议这方面的种族隔离，民权运动蓬勃兴起。60年代民主党J．F．肯尼迪和L．B．约翰逊相继执政，实行长期财政赤字政策，扩大军费开支，增加福利费用，经济持续上升。同时，由于他们卷入越南战争，支付巨额军费，消耗了美国大量财富，使美国经济实力大为削弱，而联邦德国和日本经济迅速发展，逐渐成为美国的竞争对手。

60年代，由于越南战争不得人心，国内社会动荡不宁。1961年黑人和白人公民共同展开“自由乘客”运动，1963年4月，小马丁·路德·金在伯明翰发动了大规模游行、请愿、静坐和示威运动，8月，25万黑人和白人一起为抗议种族歧视，举行了向华盛顿的进军示威，小马丁路德·金发表了“我有一个梦”的演说。在黑人民权运动的推动下，国会于1964年6月通过民权法。

1969年R．M．尼克松上台后，美国陷入越战泥淖不能自拔，经常性的财政赤字和庞大的军费开

支，加剧了通货膨胀，处于内外交困境地。1969年起，尼克松以“伙伴关系、实力加谈判”作为美国对外政策的新战略。1972年尼克松总统访华，发表了中美上海公报。1974年8月9日，尼克松因水门事件被迫辞职，副总统G．R．福特即就任第38届总统。1975年5月，正式宣布越南战争结束。

1979年1月1日中美建交公报生效，实现了两国关系正常化。在美苏关系方面，尼克松提出新“和平”战略后，两国加强了对话。1972年5月，尼克松访苏，签署了限制战略武器条约。80年代，美苏军备竞赛从数量方面转向质量方面。1985年以来，美苏经过不断谈判，终于在1988年6月1日，两国领导人在莫斯科交换了中程导弹条约的批准书。美苏关系进一步趋向缓和。

1986年11月，美国爆发了“伊朗门”事件，披露里根政府(成员)绕过国务院并隐瞒国会，于1985年至1986年秘密向伊朗出售武器，以换取美国人质，并将其中所得款项，转移给尼加拉瓜反政府武装。1987年，美国以保护海湾通航的名义，派遣军事力量去海湾，同伊朗多次发生军事冲突。1989年1月布什就任美国第41届总统。

1990年爆发海湾战争。美国出兵伊拉克。迫使其退出科威特。1992年，民主党人克林顿当选总统。其间美国及多国部队多次空袭伊拉克以制止其研制核武器。90年代末，在美国领导下，北约东扩。1999年初，美国领导北约向南联盟发动空中打击。

在经济方面，1973年“能源危机”后，1974-1975年美国爆发了战后最严重的经济危机；美国经济陷于以“滞胀”为特征的综合并发症中；1980年美国经济严重衰退。1981年里根任总统后，推行高赤字财政政策，用大规模减税和增加国防开支来刺激经济、鼓励投资，同时严格控制货币发行量。1982年美国经济开始复苏，转入低速增长。1987年10月虽发生股市暴跌风潮，美国经济情况仍较平稳，但财政赤字和外贸赤字仍是美国经济的隐忧。进入90年代，美国计算机产业发展迅速，并带动全球的高科技信息产业，开拓了新一代的产业革命！

杜鲁门主义(Truman Doctrine)

马歇尔计划(Marshall Plan)

共同安全法(Mutual Security Acts)

古巴导弹危机(Cuban Missile Crisis)

尼克松主义(Nixon Doctrine)

7

The American Revolution

The War of Revolution between America and Britain began in April 1775 in *Lexington, Massachusetts, when soldiers from each side met and somebody fired a shot. It was called the 'shot heard round the world' because the war that followed changed the future of the *British Empire and America. But the American Revolution, the movement to make an independent nation, began many years earlier.

The causes of revolution

The desire of Americans to be independent from Britain arose out of a long series of disagreements about money and political control. Britain had had colonies (= places taken over by people from a foreign country) in North America since 1607 and kept soldiers there to defend them from attack by the French

and Spanish, and by *Native Americans. In order to raise money for this, the British *Parliament tried to make the colonists (= people who had gone to settle in America) pay taxes.

From 1651, Britain passed a series of laws called Navigation Acts, which said that the colonists should trade only with Britain. These laws were frequently broken and were a continuing source of tension. Taxes imposed in the 18th century increased ill feeling towards Britain. In 1764 the Sugar Act made colonists pay tax on sugar, and in 1765 the *Stamp Act put a tax on newspapers and official documents. Opposition to this was strong and the following year Parliament had to remove the tax. By then, people in both America and Britain were arguing about who had the power to tax the colonies. The 13 colonies each had an assembly of elected representatives, and the colonists wanted these assemblies to decide what taxes they should pay, not Parliament. Some colonists, called patriots, began to want independence from Britain. They expressed their feelings in the slogan 'no taxation without representation'.

In 1767 there was a disagreement in New York about whether Britain could ask people to give soldiers accommodation in their houses. The local assembly agreed, eventually, but became involved in a dispute with Parliament over who had the right to decide such matters. In the same year the Townshend Acts put taxes on certain products including tea. The assemblies refused to help collect the money and Parliament responded by closing them down. All this caused many more people to want independence. *Boston, especially, had many patriots, including those who called themselves the *Sons of Liberty. On 5 March 1770 there was a riot in Boston and British soldiers killed five people. This incident became known as the *Boston Massacre.

The Tea Act gave a British company the right to sell tea to the colonists and actually lowered the price for legally imported tea. But most colonists bought cheaper tea that had been smuggled into the country. On 16 December 1773, when ships arrived in Boston Harbour carrying the tea, a group of patriots dressed up as Native Americans went onto the ships and threw the tea into the water. After the *Boston Tea Party, as the event was later called, Britain passed the Intolerable Acts, laws to increase her control over the colonies.

As more Americans began to support revolution, Britain sent yet more soldiers. On 5 September 1774 representatives of all the colonies except *Georgia met in *Philadelphia, calling themselves the

*Continental Congress. The Congress decided that the colonies needed soldiers of their own, and agreed to start training militiamen who could leave their jobs and be used as soldiers if necessary. Since the militiamen had to be ready to fight at short notice, they were called *minutemen.

On 18 April 1775 British soldiers marched out of Boston into the countryside to search for weapons that the colonists had hidden. Paul *Revere, a patriot from Boston, rode ahead to warn people that the British were coming. The minutemen got ready, and when they and the British met, the 'shot heard round the world' was fired.

The Revolutionary War

The Americans had the advantage of fighting at home, but Britain was a much stronger military power. There were victories and defeats on both sides during the seven years of war.

The first aim of the American army led by George *Washington was to force the British, called *Redcoats because of the colour of their uniform, to leave Boston. On 17 June 1775 the British fought and won the Battle of *Bunker Hill, but they lost so many soldiers that their position in Boston was weak and in

March 1776 they were forced to leave. The Continental Congress suggested that Britain and America should make an agreement, but Britain refused and so, on 4 July 1776, members of the Congress signed the *Declaration of Independence. This document, written by the future President Thomas *Jefferson, gave the Americans' reasons for wanting to be independent. It included ideas that were rather new, e.g. that ordinary people had certain rights that governments should respect. Since the British king *George

III refused to accept this, Americans had the right, and the duty, to form their own government.

Later in the same year the British took control of *New York and *Rhode Island, and Washington's army moved away into *Pennsylvania. The defeats discouraged many Americans, but at Christmas, when soldiers were not expecting an attack, Washington surprised the British by taking his army across the Delaware River to Trenton, *New Jersey, and defeating the Hessians, German soldiers paid by the British to fight for them. A story often told is that, before crossing the river, Washington threw down a silver dollar, thinking that if any guards were near they would hear the noise and come. Since nobody came, he knew it was safe to attack.

Washington's army spent the winter at *Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. It was very cold and the new government of the United States did not have money to provide soldiers with warm clothes and food. Many became ill, and many more lost their enthusiasm for the war. But in the spring of 1777 they received help from two different sources. A German, General von Steuben, came to train the American soldiers, and the Marquis de *Lafayette brought French soldiers to fight on the American side. With this help, the Americans won a victory at *Saratoga, New York. France and also Spain supported the United States because they thought that if Britain became weaker in North America, it would also be weaker in Europe.

Over the next few years, neither side was strong enough to defeat the other completely. But in 1781 Washington saw a perfect opportunity to win. The British General *Cornwallis had taken his army to

*Yorktown, Virginia, where he was too far away to get supplies or help. Washington marched south to meet him, while French ships made sure that the British could not receive help by sea. Cornwallis realized how bad his position was and surrendered.

In 1783, after a period of talks, Britain recognized the United States of America, making the US completely independent and giving it the western parts of North America.

Modern American attitudes to the Revolution

The Revolution is remembered by Americans in many ways. *Freedom, and the right of ordinary people to take part in their own government, the main reasons why Americans fought the War of Revolution, are values that almost all Americans still support strongly. The *Fourth of July, the day on which the Declaration of Independence was signed, is a national holiday, *Independence Day.

Places, like Boston Harbour and *Independence Hall in Philadelphia, where the Declaration of Independence was signed, are visited by millions of Americans every year. The names of people involved in the Revolution are known to everyone. George Washington's birthday is celebrated as a national holiday. John *Hancock's signature on the Declaration of Independence was the largest, so today John Hancock means 'signature'. Patrick *Henry is remembered for his speeches, especially for saying, 'Give me liberty or give me death'.

But if Americans remember the Revolution as a great victory, they seem to forget that the British were the enemy. The governments and people of the two countries have always had a special relationship, and for many Americans, even those whose ancestors were not British, Britain is still the 'mother country'.

8

The Civil War

Causes of the war

The American Civil War was fought between the northern and southern states from 1861 to 1865. There were two main causes of the war. The first was the issue of *slavery: should Africans who had been brought by force to the US be used as slaves. The second was the issue of states' rights: should the US federal government be more powerful than the governments of individual states. The North and South were very different in character. The economy of the South was based on agriculture, especially cotton. Picking cotton was hard work, and the South depended on slaves for this. The North was more industrial, with a larger population and greater wealth. Slavery, and opposition to it, had existed since before independence (1776) but, in the 19th century, the abolitionists, people who wanted to make slavery illegal, gradually increased in number. The South's attitude was that each state had the right to make any law it wanted, and if southern states wanted slavery, the US government could not prevent it. Many southerners became secessionists, believing that southern states should secede from the Union (= become independent from the US).

In 1860, Abraham *Lincoln was elected President. He and his party, the *Republicans, were against slavery, but said that they would not end it. The southern states did not believe this, and began to leave the Union. In 1860 there were 34 states in the US. Eleven of them (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina) left the Union and formed the *Confederate States of America, often called the Confederacy. Jefferson *Davis became its President, and for most of the war *Richmond, Virginia, was the capital.

Four years of fighting

The US government did not want a war but, on 12 April 1861, the Confederate Army attacked *Fort Sumter, which was in the Confederate state of South Carolina but still occupied by the Union army. President Lincoln could not ignore the attack and so the Civil War began.

Over the next four years the Union army tried to take control of the South. The battles that followed, *Shiloh, Antietam, *Bull Run and Chicamauga, have become part of America's national memory. After the battle of *Gettysburg in 1863, in a speech known as the *Gettysburg Address, President Lincoln said that the North was fighting the war to keep the Union together so that

'https://www.wendangku.net/doc/f23349820.html,ernment of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth'. In the same year he issued the *Emancipation Proclamation which made slavery illegal, but only in the Confederacy.

Slaves and former slaves played an important part in the war. Some gave information to Union soldiers, because they knew that their best chance of freedom was for the North to win the war. Many former slaves wanted to become Union soldiers, but this was not very popular among white northerners. In spite of this opposition about 185000 former slaves served in the Union army. Women on both sides worked as spies, taking information, and sometimes even people, across borders by hiding them under their large skirts.

In the South especially, people suffered greatly and had little to eat. On 9 April 1865, when the South could fight no more, General Robert E *Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S *Grant at

*Appomattox Court House in Virginia. A total of 620000 people had been killed and many more wounded.

The war was over but feelings of hostility against the North remained strong. John Wilkes *Booth, an actor who supported the South, decided to kill President Lincoln. On 14 April 1865 he approached the President in Ford's Theatre in Washington and shot him. Lincoln died the next morning.

The killing of President Lincoln showed how bitter many people felt. The South had been beaten, but its people had not changed their opinions about slavery or about states' rights. During the war, the differences between North and South had become even greater. The North had become richer. In the South, cities had been destroyed and the economy ruined.

Reconstruction

After the war the South became part of the United States again. This long, difficult period was called Reconstruction. The issues that had caused the war, slavery and states' rights, still had to be dealt with. The issue of slavery was difficult, because many people even in the North had prejudices against Blacks. The new state governments in the South wanted to make laws limiting the rights of Blacks, and the US government tried to stop them. Between 1865 and 1870 the 13th, 14th and 15th *Amendments to the *Constitution were passed, giving Blacks freedom, making them citizens of the US and the state where they lived, and giving them, in theory, the same rights as white Americans.

Many northern politicians went to the South where they thought they could get power easily. These northerners were called *carpet-baggers. Both carpet-baggers and southern politicians were dishonest and stole money from the new governments, which hurt the South even more. In 1870 the last three southern states were admitted to the Union again, and in 1877 the northern army finally left the South. The war lasted four years, but efforts to reunite the country took three times as long.Effects of the Civil War

Differences between North and South are still strong. In the South the Confederate flag is still often used, and the state flags of *Georgia and *Mississippi were made to look similar to it. The state motto is Audemus jura nostra defendere, which is Latin for 'We dare to defend our rights'.

The Civil War helped to end slavery, but long afterwards Blacks were still being treated badly, and race relations continue to be a problem. The South was so angry with the *Republicans, the party of Lincoln and Reconstruction, that southerners voted *Democratic for a century. The war showed strong differences between parts of the US, but many people believe that the most important thing it did was to prove that the US is one country.

9

Native Americans

Native Americans were living in North America for many hundreds of years before Europeans reached the continent. For a long time white people called them Indians. Today, many people do not like this name since it is based on a mistake: it was given to the people living in the Americas by Christopher *Columbus who, when he arrived there, thought he had discovered India. Instead, people prefer to use the term Native Americans. There are also native peoples living in *Alaska and Canada, e.g. *Inuits and Aleuts, but they are separate groups and are not called Native Americans.Early contact with Europeans

In *Pre-Columbian North America there were many tribes who lived by hunting animals and gathering plants. Many of the tribes moved from one place to another according to the season and what food was available. Most of what is known about Native Americans dates from the time when they came into contact with Europeans.

The first place in the US where Europeans settled permanently was *Jamestown, Virginia, founded in 1607. At first Native Americans were positive about the Europeans and were happy to have the many new things they brought, e.g. metal cooking pots, cloth and guns. But the Europeans also introduced diseases that Native Americans had no resistance to, so many became ill and died. They also brought alcohol, the effects of which Native Americans did not know. Some Europeans took advantage of this by getting them drunk and then paying low prices for their goods.

The worst problem for Native Americans, which lasted into the late 20th century, was that the new settlers wanted their land. To native Americans owning land was a strange idea. Tribes moved around as they pleased and shared land with any other tribe that was friendly. They did not understand that a person might believe a piece of land was theirs, or that they would try to keep others from using it. The settlers, on the other hand, assumed that they would take control of North America and used all means to do this, including making agreements, which they usually did not keep, tricking Native Americans into selling land cheaply, and taking it by military force. Native American chiefs like *Sitting Bull, *Tecumseh and *Geronimo fought against the settlers. As Whites began moving west, Native American tribes had to be moved on. Some were forced to go to other parts of North America, to areas very different from the ones they were used to. The *Trail of Tears was one of many terrible examples: in the cold winter of 18389 17 000 *Cherokees

had to move from their land in the south-east to what is now *Oklahoma and more than 4 000 died. The government promised tribes that if they agreed to stay in one part of the country they could keep that land forever. But the promises lasted only until Americans discovered that the land they had given them was good for farming or had gold.

Whites have explained this behaviour in different ways. When the Indians fought and killed white people they said that this proved that Native Americans were wild and had to be controlled. People also believed that the Native Americans were wasting good land by not developing it. In the 19th century Americans believed in *manifest destiny, meaning that they thought God wanted them to occupy the whole continent. They also believed that it was better for the Native Americans to learn to live like white people and tried to teach them Christianity. Many Native American children, including the athlete Jim *Thorpe, were taken away from their tribe and sent to schools where they were not allowed to speak their own language.

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Native American languages

Before Europeans arrived in North America there were over 300 Native American languages. Some have now died out, and of the 250 or so remaining many are spoken only by a few older people. Other languages, like Cherokee, are more widely spoken. Most Native Americans speak English, some as their first language and others as their second.

Native American languages have added many words to English, though the meaning of a word has often been changed. Teepees are a kind of tent, *wampum belts were made of beads and since the belts had great value Europeans used wampum to mean 'money'. Moccasins, a kind of shoe, are today worn by people all over the world. Many Native American words describe the things they name. For example, the Asakiwaki tribe's name means 'people of the yellow earth', and the Cherokees' name for themselves, Ani-Yun'wiya, means 'the leading people'. Indian names for Whites included 'people greedily grasping for land'.

Many American place names have their roots in Native American languages. *Ohio, for instance, is a Native American name, and the names of many of its towns and cities, such as Chillicothe and Sandusky, and the lakes Scioto and Olentangy, are of Native American origin.

Native Americans today

According to the Bureau of Indian Affairs, a part of the US government, there are now about 550 tribes. These include well-known groups like the *Navajo and *Sioux, and less famous tribes like the Cayuse. The number of Native Americans living in the US is about 1.2 million.

Almost a million live on reservations, areas of land that the government has allowed them to keep as their own. Native Americans are US citizens, and have the rights and responsibilities of any US citizen. However, reservations have their own governments and police forces and Native Americans pay different taxes. They also have the right to hunt and fish where and when they like, while other Americans have to get a licence.

On or off the reservations Native Americans find it difficult to live the traditional life. Activities of other Americans affect the way they live. Building dams across a river, for example, can affect the numbers of fish living there, so that even though Native Americans have the right to fish they may not be able to catch anything. Away from the reservations, many Native Americans find that their culture is very different from that of white people and have difficulty adapting.

Poverty is a serious problem. About 37% of people who live on reservations are unemployed, compared with 6% of the general population. Many tribes try to bring in money from outside. Some sell rights to search for oil on their reservation, others use the fact that the reservation makes its own rules to open casinos where people from outside can come and gamble. Gambling is illegal in most parts of the US and many Americans want it to remain so, but it makes a lot of money for the tribes. This brings Native Americans, once again, into conflict with white Americans.

11

Native Americans in the popular imagination

An American tradition dating back to early times is *Thanksgiving. When the English arrived in Jamestown many died during the long cold winter, but in the following spring Native Americans showed them what local foods they could eat. In the autumn, well-prepared for the winter, settlers and Native Americans had a special dinner together, the first Thanksgiving, to thank God and the Native Americans for all the food they had. Another story describes how the Native American princess *Pocahontas saved the life of John *Smith, the leader in Jamestown, when her father, *Powhatan, wanted to kill him. She later married another Englishman, John Rolfe, and went to England with him. The story of Pocahontas is widely known and many Americans are proud to have her as an ancestor.

But Native Americans were more often seen by white settlers as the enemy. *Westerns, i.e. films and books about the *Wild West, use the threat from Indians as their central theme. In this context Native Americans are still called 'Indians'. Children often play 'cowboys and Indians' and pretend to kill each other. When *Buffalo Bill, began touring the US with his Wild West show, the chief Sitting Bull was one of many Native Americans in it, and

many people went to see this former great enemy.

Many Americans have an image of a 'typical Indian', a chief who lived in a teepee with his squaw (= wife), smoked a peace pipe after signing a treaty with the white man (whom he called pale face), sent smoke signals to communicate with people far away, and spoke broken English full of colourful expressions such as 'big heap wampum' (a lot of money) and 'speaks with forked tongue' (is lying). Most of these ideas have some basis in Native American culture, but it is wrong to put them all together and believe that that was how Native Americans lived.

Americans make such mistakes because they have little interest in Native Americans. Having succeeded in pushing them out of the way onto reservations, most Americans ignore them. This may be because the Native Americans who are left are living proof of a hard truth: America wants to be, and often is, a land where everyone has a chance and where the government behaves fairly and honestly to all, but this America is built on land stolen from the people who lived there first.

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George Washington (1732-99)

the first US *President (1789-97), who had led its army to success in the *American Revolution. He is called 'the Father of His Country'. The *Continental Congress placed him in charge of the American forces in 1775. Although his army had a difficult and dangerous winter at *Valley Forge, General Washington led them to several victories, including the final Battle of *Yorktown. He later gave his important approval for the *American Constitution and was elected in 1789 as the country's first president. He supported a strong central government but disliked political party arguments. He was elected a second time, but refused to stand as a candidate for a third time and returned to his home at *Mount Vernon.

Americans have always admired Washington as one of their best and most moral presidents. He is considered by many to have been the country's greatest leader and perhaps the only one who could have united the colonists during the American Revolution. Most people know the story of how as a boy he cut down his father's cherry tree and then admitted what he had done, saying, 'I cannot tell a lie.' The story may not be true but it is seen as a symbol of his honesty. Washington's fine personal qualities and fair politics were recognized during his life, and they seem even more impressive today. His memory is honoured by the *Washington Monument and the names of the country's capital city, a state, many *counties, government buildings, schools, streets, mountains, etc, and his image appears on the dollar note and the 25-cent coin.

Washington, DC (Washington, District of Columbia)

the capital city of the US, whose area covers the *District of Columbia. The place was chosen by George *Washington in 1790, and since 1800 the main departments of the US government have been there. It is known for its historical monuments and important buildings, including the *Capitol, the *White House(1), the *Supreme Court, the *National Archives, the *Library of Congress, the *Smithsonian Institution, the *National Gallery of Art and the *Kennedy Center. About 66% of Washington's population are *African Americans.

Washington Monument

a tall, thin monument on The *Mall(2) in *Washington, DC, built to honour the memory of George *Washington. It is 555 feet/169 metres high and made of white marble. Tourists can clim

b the 898 steps to the top, from which there are fine views of the city. The Monument took 40 years to build and was completed in 1888.

jazz

Jazz is one of the greatest forms of music originating in the US. The names of its stars, who are mostly *African Americans, are known around the world. Most people have heard of stars like Ella *Fitzgerald, 'Count' *Basie, 'Duke' *Ellington and Louis *Armstrong. Wynton *Marsalis, who plays in the traditional style, is the best-known jazz musician today. Jazz was begun in the *South by African Americans. Many of its rhythms came from the work songs and spirituals (= religious songs) of black slaves. New Orleans street bands first made jazz popular. Early forms of jazz created at the beginning of the 20th century were *ragtime and the *blues. Ragtime musicians included the singer 'Jelly Roll' *Morton and the composer and piano player Scott *Joplin. Famous blues singers included Bessie *Smith and later Billie *Holiday. *Dixieland developed from ragtime and the blues and made a feature of improvisation (= making up the music as it is being played), especially on the trumpet and saxophone. Dixieland stars included Louis Armstrong and Sidney Bechet.

In the 1920s many African Americans moved north, taking jazz with them, and *Chicago and New York became centres for the music. This was the beginning of the big band era. In the 1930s swing music came into fashion and people danced to jazz. Radio and the new recording industry helped to make it even more popular. The big bands were led by Basie, Ellington, Woody *Herman, Glenn *Miller and 'the King of Swing', Benny *Goodman. In the 1940s there were new styles such as *bebop, developed by 'Dizzy' *Gillespie, Charlie 'Bird' *Parker and Thelonious *Monk. Freer forms like progressive jazz developed in the 1950s with stars including Stan *Getz and Dave *Brubeck. Cool jazz followed in the 1960s, led by Getz and Miles *Davis. More recent styles have included funky jazz, jazz-rock and hip-hop jazz. Many jazz clubs, like the *Cotton Club, have now closed but others, like Preservation Hall

in *New Orleans, and Birdland in *Manhattan, remain.

In Britain jazz attracts a small but enthusiastic audience. The height of its popularity was in the 1940s and 1950s, when large crowds gathered to hear big bands. British jazz has always been heavily influenced by US jazz. In the 1960s pop and rock music replaced jazz as the music of the young generation. There are now few jazz bands, although smaller combos (= groups) continue to play a wide range of trad (= traditional), bebop, cool and

avant-garde jazz. The most famous British jazz musicians have included Johnny *Dankworth and Cleo *Laine, George Melly, Humphrey *Lyttelton and Courtney *Pine. The home of jazz in Britain is Ronnie *Scott's club in London.

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1791.12.15 美国宪法增列十条修正案，即权利法案。

1792.4.2 美国国会通过造币法，在费城建造一座造币厂。

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【托福阅读考前必备】托福阅读背景知识-Native Americans in the popular imagination

【托福阅读考前必备】托福阅读背景知识-Native Americans in the popular imagination 在我们的托福备考过程中，想要提高托福阅读水平最好方法莫过于增加自己的阅读量。而在与此同时，除了托福真题和TPO的一些练习之外，许多阅读素材中的词汇积累也是会为大家带来很多帮助的。那么，下面我们就为大家带来一些托福阅读素材，希望能为你的备考带来帮助。 托福阅读背景知识(11)：Native Americans in the popular imagination An American tradition dating back to early times is *Thanksgiving. When the English arrived in Jamestown many died during the long cold winter, but in the following spring Native Americans showed them what local foods they could eat. In the autumn, well-prepared for the winter, settlers and Native Americans had a special dinner together, the first Thanksgiving, to thank God and the Native Americans for all the food they had. Another story describes how the Native American princess *Pocahontas saved the life of John *Smith, the leader in Jamestown, when her father, *Powhatan, wanted to kill him. She later married another Englishman, John Rolfe, and went to England with him. The story of Pocahontas is widely known and many Americans are proud to have her as an ancestor. But Native Americans were more often seen by white settlers as the enemy. *Westerns, i.e. films and books about the *Wild West, use the threat from Indians as their central theme. In this context Native Americans are still called #39;Indians#39;. Children often play #39;cowboys and Indians#39; and pretend to kill each other. When *Buffalo Bill, began touring the US with his

2019年托福听力背景知识：地质火山(图)

2019年托福听力背景知识：地质火山(图) 地质学是托福听力中考察的重点学科之一，涉及到的具体范畴有板块构造，洞穴形成的分析，冰川移动的形式等等，在本篇文章中，我将针对地质学的另一个重点内容地震以及火山的相关信息以图解的方式为广大考生表现，让考生能够更佳生动深刻的学习并且掌握听力中关于火山和地震相关的核心背景信息。 首先，关于地震和火山现象，要放到一起来说，因为两者往往是相继发生的地质现象。 每天世界各地都会发生不起其数的有感地震，那为什么地面会震动呢? 如上图所示，我们的地球由地壳(crust),地幔(mantle)以及地核(core)组成，其中的地幔部分由超高温的金属和岩石(super-heated metal and rock)组成，温度超过1900摄氏度，而我们则生活于厚度仅有6.5千米的地壳之上。如果把地球缩小成一颗苹果，那地壳的厚度就跟苹果皮一样薄。 因为炽热的地核在持续运动，温度较高的岩石从地心升至地表，温度较低的则沉向地心。这样的温度差就会产生对流，如上图，红色代表温度高的岩石往上流动，蓝色代表温度较低的岩石往下流动，如此就会对地壳实行推压，进而将地壳分割成很多岩石块，称为地壳构造板块(tectonic plates)。这些板块依靠地幔中熔岩的流动而运动，就像溪水中的树叶一般，相遇的时候会产生摩擦(friction)。 有时一个板块会滑倒另一个下面或者压在另一个上面。当这种情况发生时，我们就会感到地震的发生。 摩擦力避免了板块频繁的运动，但这意味着当数十亿吨岩石相互撞击时，就积累了巨大的压力，迟早这个压力会变大，当大到断层发生剧烈运动时，就会印发地震(earthquake)。

【托福阅读】托福阅读考试必备历史知识点

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1.intelligence 智力 2.narrow 狭隘的 3.account for 说明 4.adapt to 使适应 5.ear plug 耳塞 6.corner 角落 7.be aware of 意识到 8.aspect 方面 9.model 模式 10.environment 环境 11.advantage 优势 12.traditional 传统的 13.predict 预测 14.academic success 学术成就 15.reliably 可靠的 16.previous 以前的 17.score 计分 https://www.wendangku.net/doc/f23349820.html,plete 完整的 19.diagnose 诊断 20.experiment 实验 21.noise 噪音 22.reduction 削减 23.theoretical 理论的 24.influence 影响 25.performance 进行 26.illustrate 说明 27.improve 改善 28.habit 习惯 29.conduct 进行 30.underline 强调 31.importance 重要性 32.recent 最近的 https://www.wendangku.net/doc/f23349820.html,monly 通常 34.recall 回忆起 35.consider 考虑到 36.try to 尝试 37.relationship 关系 38.tend to 倾向于 39.select 选择 40.suppose 假设 41.roommate 室友 42.quiet 安静 43.in order to 为了

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