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语言学课后习题答案

语言学课后习题答案
语言学课后习题答案

Chapter 1

Introduction

1. De?ne the following terms brie?y.

(1) linguistics: the scienti?c or systematic study of language.

(2) language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

(3) arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign and

what it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.

(4) duality: the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and

letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.

(5) competence: knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formal abstraction

and distinct from the behavior of actual language use, i.e. performance.

(6) performance: Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct from the

knowledge that underlies it, or competence.

(7) stylistics: the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features.

(8) phatic communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere or

maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer.

(9) functionalism: the study of the forms of language in reference to their social

function in communication.

(10) formalism: the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.

(11) synchronic linguistics: the study of language and speech as they are used at a given

moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.

(12) diachronic linguistics: the study of linguistic change over time in contrast to looking at

language as it is used at a given moment.

2. No, language is human-speci?c. Human language has seven design features, including arbitrariness, duality, productivity, interchangeability, displacement, specialization and cultural transmission. These features are found utterly lacking in dogs’ or pigs’ noises and thus set human language apart from animal cry systems.

3. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection bet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as “gou”, but “yilu” in Japanese; it barks wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack”and “bang”are exceptions, but words like these are relatively few compared with the total number of words in a language.

4. A human baby does not speak any language at birth. What language the baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese. That is to say, language cannot be transmitted through heredity. It is culturally transmitted.

5. Firstly, linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Secondly, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of the written language. Thirdly, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.

6. A descriptive approach attempts to tell what is in the language while the prescriptive approach tells people what should be in the language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.

7. Synchronic linguistics studies language at one particular time while diachronic linguistics studies language developments through time. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.

8. No, human language has the design feature of specialization. It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. For example, a mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake. However, wolves can only respond to a stimulus and is totally involved physically in the communication process. Thus, a wolf cannot have a language similar to man’s, even though it could express a thousand different emotions. Besides, the aspect of productivity also distinguishes human language from wolf ’s postures.

Chapter 2

The Sounds of Language

1. De?ne each of the following terms brie?y.

(1) articulator: the tongue, lips, and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract

to produce different speech sounds.

(2) assimilation: a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar

(or identical) to a neighboring sound, e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when

followed by a [+nasal] consonant.

(3) consonant: a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the

vocal tract, thus obstructing the air?ow and creating audible friction. Consonants

are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of

articulation.

(4) elision: the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.

(5) intonation: the variation in pitch and stress which gives beat and rhythm to the

tune the voice plays in ordinary speech.

(6) phoneme: the abstract element of a sound, identi?ed as being distinctive in a

particular language.

(7) phonetics: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are

produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.

(8) phonology: the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.

(9) stress: the prominence given to certain sounds in speech.

(10) voicing: the vibration in the larynx caused by air from the lungs

passing through the vocal cords when they are partly closed; speech sounds are said to be either voiced or voiceless.

(11) voiceless: When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from

the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds.

(12) vowel: a speech sound produced without signi?cant constriction of the air

?owing through the oral cavity.

2. Minimal pair test or substitution test.

Minimal pair test or substitution test is to see whether substituting one sound for 4another results in a different word. If it does, the two sounds represent different phonemes. For example, as to the English word bear, if we substitute p for b, we get the word pear, the

two are different words. Then /b/ and /p/ represent different phonemes. Other examples

are chunk/junk, ban/bin, bet/beat, ?ne/vine, side/site, etc.

3. Take the word big for example, in the word big /big/, /b/ is the onset,

/i/ is the nucleus and /g/ is the coda. The difference between open syllables and closed syllables is whether the words have codas. If there are codas, they are closed syllables, such as pig, hat and at; if not, they are open syllables, such as do, I, tea and key.

4. (1) stop, consonant

(2) back, rounded, vowel

5. (1) voiceless / voiced

(2) bilabial / labiodental

(3) close / semi-open

(4) stop / nasal

(5) alveolar / palatal

(6) alveolar / dental

(1) kit/git, bucker/bugger, bag/back

(2) mark/nark, smack/snack, sum/sun

(3) best/vest, ober/over, lib/live

(4) bore/more, abate/amate, mob/mom

(5) pat/fat, apt/aft (AmE), harp (BrE)/half

7. (1) The stresses are placed on the second syllable except for “promise”. We may easily conclude that the verbs usually are stressed on the second syllable.

(2) Syllable representations of the words:

collide [k2#laid] elect [i#lekt] consider [k2n#sid2]

Chapter 3

Morphology

1. De?ne the following terms brie?y.

(1) morphology: the study of the structure of words.5

(2) morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carries meaning or serves

a grammatical function.

(3) free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.

(4) bound morpheme: a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word,

e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).

(5) morph: the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the

level of parole.

(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized, e.g. -s, -es, and en

are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.

(7) derivation: the formation of new words by adding af?xes to other words or

morphemes in morphology and word formation.

(8) clipping: the process by which parts of a word of more than one syllable have been

cut off, and reduced to a shorter form.

(9) acronym: words which are composed of the ?rst letter of a series of words

and are pronounced as single words. Examples: NATO, radar and yuppy.

(10) initialism: Some new words are composed of the ?rst letters of a series of

words and pronounced by saying each letter in them. Such words are called

initialism.

(11) blending: A single new word can be formed by combining two separate

forms. Typically, blending is ?nished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. For example, brunch is

formed by the shortened forms of breakfast and lunch.

(12) root: the morpheme that remains when all af?xes are stripped from a complex word,

e.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.

(13) stem: the base to which one or more af?xes are attached to create a more

complex form that may be another stem or a word. For example, book is the stem

of bookish.

(14) pre?x: Af?xes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, in which

case they are called pre?xes.

(15) suf?x: Af?xes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are

called suf?xes.

2. (3), (5), (7)

3. (1) simple: ?y tree suite

(2) bound morpheme root

?y / ?y

reuse re- use

spiteful -ful spite

preplan pre- plan

desks -s desk

triumphed -ed triumph

suite / suite

optionality -ality option

untie un- tie

delight de- light

fastest -est fast

prettier -ier pretty

tree / tree

justly -ly just

deform de- form

mistreat mis- treat

dislike dis- like

payment -ment pay

disobey dis- obey

premature pre- mature

4. (1) Column I: ablaut (vowel modi?cation)

Column II: suppletion

Column III: stress modi?cation

(2) The process in the Column I is ?nished by changing the vowel of each word, while

in Column II, the process is ?nished by changing vowel and consonant of each

word.

(3) Column I: awake/awoke bear/bore arise/arose

blow/blew bite/bit hide/hid

lie/lay know/knew foot/feet

goose/geese tooth/teeth louse/lice

Column II: bad/worse are/were many/more

Column III: ‘combine/’bine ‘compress/’press7

‘conduct/con’duct ‘insert/in’sert

‘insult/in’sult ‘intern/in’tern

5. (1) Omitted.

(2) Other examples:

‘rerun (n.) – re’run (v.) ‘contrast (n.) – con’trast (v.)

‘convert (n.) – con’vert (v.) ‘desert (n.) – de’sert (v.)

‘export (n.) – ex’port (v.) ‘increase (n.) – in’crease (v.)

‘conduct (n.) – con’duct (v.) ‘object (n.) – ob’ject (v.)

‘content (n.) – con’tent (v.) ‘protest (n.) – pro’test (v.)

‘insult (n.) – in’sult (v.) ‘produce (n.) – pro’duce (v.)

When a word belongs to different word classes, the stress of the word will be sometimes placed on different syllables. When all the words above are stressed on the ?rst syllables, they are nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verbs.

6. (1) It means “the inhabitant of ”.

(2) It means “the person who does”.

(3) The morphological rule working here is “n. + -er –– n.”, and the last

phoneme of the noun, which the suf?x -er is added to, should be a consonant.

(4) The rule in (3) doesn’t work in the word discoverer because the last phoneme

of discoverer is a vowel /2/.

7. (1) in?ection (2) derivation (3) in?ection (4) in?ection (5) derivation

Chapter 4

Syntax

1. De?ne the following terms brie?y.

(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of

sentence structure.

(2) word class: a group of words which are similar in function; words which are

grouped into word classes according to how they combine with other words, how

they change their forms, etc.

(3) prescriptive approach: This view regards grammar as a set of rules

for the 8“proper” use of a language, that’s to say, it tries to lay down rules to tell people how to use a language.

(4) descriptive approach: the approach of linguistic studies, with which linguists collect

samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular

structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should be used.

(5) IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate

constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.

For example, the immediate constituents of “The man bought a car” are the man

and bought a car. The immediate constituents of the man are the and man, and so on until no further cuts can be made. The ultimate constituents of “The man bought a car” at the word level are the, man, bought, a, and car.

(6) structural analysis: a type of descriptive approach to study the distribution of

linguistic forms in a language through such methods as the use of “test frames”. (7) immediate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into small constituents,

which can be further analyzed into smaller constituents. This process

continues until no further divisions are possible. The ?rst division or units are

known as immediate constituents.

(8) ultimate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into small constituents, which

can be further analyzed into smaller constituents. This process continues

until no further divisions are possible. The ?nal division or units are known as

ultimate constituents.

(9) constituent structural grammar: It refers to a grammar which analyzes sentences

using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels. (10) transformational grammar: a type of grammar which attempts to de?ne and describe

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《语言学概论》 一、名词解释 1.音位:最小的可以区别意义的语音单位,通常由一簇互相不区别意义的音素构成。如|A|音位里就有前A、后A、央A等几个音素。 2.塞擦音:辅音的发音方式之一。其特点是发音时,两个发音部位紧靠在一起形成阻碍,在保持这个阻碍的同时,留出一个窄缝,让气流从窄缝中磨擦成声,最后除去这个阻碍。如:b‘p‘k‘就是。 3.递归性:语言的递归性是指,组合结构中的某个单位,可以不断地被一个同功能的 短语替换,从而使基本结构里的某个扩展为非常复杂的结构,但其作用仍然等于原始项。也即语言的整体结构与基本框架不变。语法结构的这种性质,我们称之为语言结构的递归性。语言的递归性是语言结构一种非常重要的特性。如:人打倒了|敌人/凶恶的敌人/盘踞在中国大陆的敌人/ 曾经盘踞在中国大陆的不可 以一世的敌人/曾经盘踞在中国大陆不可一世但最终被人 民打倒的敌人 4.复综语:语言类型之一。这种语言的动词内有用不同 的形态表示各种复杂的语法 成分。多见于美洲印第安人的语言。举例。 5.自由变体:音位变体的一种类型。通常指对出现的组合条件没有硬性要求的音位变体。举例。 6.元音:音素的类型之一。即发音时气流在口腔中不受 阻碍而形成的音。举例。 7.语法形式:表示语法意义方式与材料。举例。 8.词干:一个词的主要部分,词汇意义的承担者。举例。 9.音色:语音四要素之一,又叫音质,指声音的特色。由物体振动的不同形式所决定。举例。 10.塞音:辅音的发音方式之一。其特征发音时两个发音部位紧靠在一起,保持一段时间,然后突然除阻,爆破成声。也叫爆破音。举例。 11.共同语:随着社会政治经济集中,会以一种方言为基础形成共同语,以满足整个社会交际往来。共同语又叫天下通语、雅言。举例。 12.数:语法范畴之一。指是用一个词的不同形态表示 出来的词语数的语法意义。在单数、复数、双数等。举例。 二、谈谈语言符号的特点 答:(1).语言是一种工具, 即交际工具和思维工具;而思 维是一种能力和过程,即人脑 能动地反映客观现实的能力 和过程。 (2).概念用词语表达,判断 用句子表达,但概念按照逻辑 规律构成的种种判断和词语 按语法规则构成的啊、种种句 子是有区别的。如:语言中的 每个词不一定都表示一个概 念,每个句子不一定都表示判 断。 (3).思维过程是运用概念 按照逻辑规律构成种种判断, 语言运用过程则是运用词语, 按照句法构成各种句子。 (4).语言是具有民族特点 的,各民族都有自己的语言特 点,世界上有许多种语言。但 思维是各民族共同的,全人类 具有共同的思维形式和思维 规律。 三、试分析汉字跨越方言交 际的特点与原因 答:汉字的特点:汉字本身 与汉语的语音不发生直接联 系,所以汉字是表意体系的文 字。 汉字有许多形声字,形声字 有表音的声旁,但这种声旁并 不是某种固定的表音的符号, 也不是直接标音的符号,所以 汉字虽有声旁,仍然是表意体 系的文字。 汉字跨方言交际的原因 汉语的居住地区幅员辽阔, 方言分歧有的不能通话,汉族 有悠久的文化传统,有大量用 汉字记载的文献典籍。超地 域、超时代的汉字既可以贯通 古今,也可以联系各地区的人 们的思想交流对于维护国家 的统一、民族的团结,便利各 地区人民的往来起着重要的 作用。 四、谈谈语言分化的原因与 结果 答:语言的分化有两大方 面:一方面是分化出地方变 体,即方言。方言的产生是与 社会的半分化状态相适应的。 随着社会的进一步分化,方言 进一步发展,就可能形成独立 的语言,即产生具有同源关系 的亲属语言。另一方面是分化 出社会变化。社会变化即社会 方言,如行业语,阶级或阶层 习惯语,隐语等。地域方言之 间的区别主要表现在语音方 面,同时也表现在词汇和语法 方面。而社会方言的区别主要 表现在词汇方面。 五、谈语言成分的借用与吸 收 答:要点:借用与吸收的条 件。民族之间的贸易往来,文 化交流,移民杂居,战争征服 等各种形态的接触,都会引起 语言的接触。语言的接触,也 会产生“洋泾浜”“混合 语”等特殊的语言现象。 主要形式有借词。借词也叫 外来词,它指的是音与义都借 自外语的词。 意译词是用本族语言的构 词材料和规则构成新词,把外 语里某个词的意义移植进来。 汉语在吸收外来成分的时 候,不喜欢借音,喜欢有自己 的语素来构词。在这一点上, 汉语和英语、日语等有很大不 同,而接近于德语。 意译词里面还有一种仿译 词。它的特点是,用本族语言 的材料逐一翻译原词的语素, 不但把它的意义,而且把神经 质内部构成形式,也转植过来 如“黑板blackboard,"球 "footba1l等。 有时候,在吸收外来外来成 分的时候,为了便于理解采用 音译加意译的方法。 如汉语中啤酒beer,卡车car 等等。 在词的借用过程中,还可能 有借出去的词再借回来的现 象。一出一进之间,音义等方 面都会有一些变化。汉语的 “百姓”借入蒙古语后成为 [paicing]意思是土房子后来 变成店铺的意思汉语后来又 把这个词从蒙古语中借回来 叫做板生简称板。 七、谈谈语言与思维的关系 思维离不开语言,语言和思 维是两种独立的现象,但形影 相随,不可分离,思维必须在 语言材料的基础上进行。语言 是思维的工具,也是认识成果 的储存。 学习语言的过程也就是认 识世界的过程,思维发展的过 程。 思维必能推语言,还有神经 生物学的根据。 抽象的思维总得以某种物 质的形式作为依托,最方便、 最灵活的依托是声音,也就是 有声语言。 八、试分析词义的派生及其 派生意义的相互关系 答:1.词义派生的条件2.词 义派生的类型3.派生义之间 的关系 词义的派生有现实的基础, 这就是派生义和派生它的那 个意义所指的事物的某一方 面特征有联系。这种联系怎么 被利用来作为派生新义的线 索,那与语言社会的生活环 境、劳动条件、风俗习惯以及 人的思维活动、语言成分之间 的相互作用等等有关。因而表 达同一类现实现象的词义在 不同的语言中各有自己的派 生历程。多义词的派生意义和 它所从出的意义之间存在着 内存的联系。而两者所表示的 事情之间的共同特征,则建立 这种联系的桥梁派生意义就 是顺着这样的桥梁从本义一 步一步扩散开去的。 派生意义产生的途径,就是 引申。引申大体上可分为隐喻 和换喻两种方式。隐喻建立在 两个意义所反映的现实现象 的某种相似的基础上。换喻的 基础是两类现实现象之间存 在着某种联系。这种联系在人 们的心中经常出现而固定化, 因而可以用指称甲类现象的 词去指称乙类现象。一个词的 意义通过隐喻和换喻这些引 申途径可以啬很多新的意义, 使语言能够用较少的词的形 式表达较多的意义。 九、试论图画文字与文字画 答:如果把图形简化,一个 图形记录语言中的一个语素 或词,那就产生了真正的文 字。文字起源于图画,所以有 人把记事的图画叫做“图画文 字”。这种用于交际的图画, 正是原始文字符号的前身,图 形象征化的最初的、最原始的 阶段是图画文字。当图形符号 不是用来代表概念而是用来 代表相应的词的声音时,文字 史上最有意义的一步就迈出 去了。用于交际的图画演变为 文字符号的标志在于它与语 言中的词或语素建立起固定 的关系,也就是说,它在图形 上比较确定,并且有了公认的 音和意。 文字画是用整幅画与语言结 合,成了能说的图画,在一定 程度上具备了文字的性质,但 是它只能图解主要的事物形 象和它们的关系,而不能象真 正的文字那样,作为一种符号 体系来记录语言,就是说它不 能把文字记录的语法关系排 列出来,它只能在比较狭小的 范围内发挥实际作用,离开了 当时的环境。别人无法理解他 的意义,因而文字画还不是真 正的文字,只能说明文字是起 源于文字画,是文字的前身。 十一、试谈洋泾浜的发展趋 势 答:“洋泾浜”这种语言现 象的产生与十七世纪以后帝 国主义的殖民扩张有联系,是 语言接触中的一种畸形的语 言现象。它的使用范围比较狭 窄,发展的前途不外两个:一 是随着社会制度的改变而消 亡,像我国的洋泾浜语在解放 后便停止通行;一个是发展为 混合语,成为某一地区人们通 用的交际工具。 十二、语言的符号特点与作 用 答:语言的符号的最大特点 是它的音和意的结合是任意 的,由社会约定俗成。语言符 号中的形式和意义的结合完 全由社会“约定俗成”,而不 是他们之间有什么必然的、本 质的联系。 语言符号的另一重要特点 是它的线条性。语言符号只能 一个跟着一个一次出现,在实 践的线条上延绵,不能在空间 的面上铺开。 这种由社会“约定俗成”的 符号在使用中还有一个重要 的特点,就是它要象机器的零 件那样能够拼装拆卸,重复使 用。 语言符号不是互不相干的 一盘散沙,而是有组织、有条 理的系统。 十三、谈谈词的形态与形态 变化 答:形态即词形变化,是指 词与词组合时,由于表示语法 意义的需要而发生的词形上 的变化。例如英语的代词有主 格和宾格的区别,第一人称单 数作主语时用I,作宾格时用 me,词形发生了变化,就是形 态变化。 汉语属于孤立语,词很少有 形态变化,少部分形容词可以 重叠表示程度加强的意义,例 如“高高兴兴、快快乐乐、结 结巴巴”等。 例如:英语动词be的八种 形态写八个句子,说明其语法 意义。 a.Hewillbeateacher:表示 将要发生的动作行为,动词用 原形。 b.Iamateacher:现在时,单 数第一人称。 c.Sheisapainter:现在时, 单数第三人称。 d.Theyareworker:现在时, 主语是复数。 e.Hewasateacher:过去时, 主语是单数。 f.wewereworker:过去时, 主语是复数。 g.Ihavebeenateacher:现 在完成时,表示从过去延续到 现在的行为状态。 h.Thenewspaperisbeingre ad:被动语态,进行时。

语言学第四单元课后答案 synta 树状图 the s rule

syntax 1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady suddenly left. Det A N Qual V b) The car stopped at the end of the road. Det N V P Det N P Det N c) The snow might have blocked the road. Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He never appears quite mature. N Qual V Deg A 2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each. a) full of people AP A P N full of people b) a story about a sentimental girl NP NP PP Det A N a story about a sentimental girl c) often read detective stories VP Qual V NP

A N often read detective stories d) the argument against the proposals NP NP PP Det N the argument against the proposals e) move towards the window VP V PP P Det N move towards the window 3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences. a) The jet landed. InflP(=S) NP Infl VP Det N Pst V The jet landed b) Mary became very ill. InflP(=S) NP Infl VP N Pst V AP

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