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1. Only the last of these was suited at all to the continuous operating of machines, and although waterpower abounded in Lancashire and Scotland and ran grain mills as well as textile mills, it had one great disadvantage：Streams flowed where nature intended them to and water-driven factories had to be located on their banks whether or not the location was desirable for other reasons.

2. Early in the century, a pump had come into use in which expanding steam raised a

piston(活塞) in a cylinder(汽缸)，and atmospheric pressure brought it down again when the steam condensed inside the cylinder to form a vacuum．

3. The final step came when steam was introduced into the cylinder to drive the piston backward as well as forward thereby increasing the speed of the engine and cutting its fuel consumption.

4. Coal gas rivaled smoky oil lamps and flickering candles, and early in the new century, well—to—do Londoners grow accustomed to gaslights houses and even streets.

5. Iron manufacturers which had starved for fuel while depending on charcoal also benefited

from ever-increasing supplies of coal; blast furnaces with steam-powered bellows turned out more iron and steel for the new machinery．

6. At the same time, operators of the first printing presses run by steam rather than by hand found it possible to produce a thousand pages in an hour rather than thirty．

7. In some industrial regions, heavily laden wagons，with flanged wheels，were being hauled by horses along metal rails; and the stationary steam engine was puffing in the factory and mine.

8. Another generation passed before Inventors succeeded in combining these ingredients by putting the engine on wheels and the wheels on the rails, so as to provide a machine to take the place of the horse.

9. When he grew older William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish.

10. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as

to determine the best courses for the canals.

11. He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth of England all the while studying the newly revealed strata and collecting all the fossils he could find．

12. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world.

13. Quartz is quartz—a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions—there’s no difference at all between two-million-year-old Pleistocene quartz and Cambrian quartz created over 500 million years ago．

14. As he collected fossils from strata throughout England, Smith began to see that the fossils told a different story from the rocks particularly in the younger strata the rocks were often so similar that he had trouble distinguishing the strata, but he never had trouble telling the fossils apart.

15. While rock between two consistent strata might in one place be shale and in sandstone,

the fossils in that shale or sandstone were always the same.

16. Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that they appear in many strata, but others occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births and extinctions within one particular stratum.

17. By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of England's earth into relative temporal sequence.

18. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or-300 million years later-in the Jurassic strata but a trilobite—the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian—will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian.

19. The sheer passage of time does not account for it; adults have excellent recognition of pictures of people who attended high school with them 35 years earlier.

20. Children two and a half to three years old remember experiences that occurred in their first year, and eleven month older than them can remember some events a year later.

21. Nor does the hypothesis that infantile amnesia reflects repression- or holding back- of sexually charged episodes explain the phenomenon.

22. Maturation of the frontal lobes of the brain continues throughout early childhood, and this part of the brain may be critical for remembering particular episodes in ways that can be retrieved later.

23. Consistent with this view parents and children increasingly engage in discussions of past events when children are about three years old.

24. The better able the person is to reconstruct the perspective from which the material was encoded, the more likely that recall will be successful.

25. The world looks very different to a person whose head is only two or three feet above the ground than to one whose head is five or six feet above it, 0lder children and adults often try to retrieve the names of things they saw, but infants would not have encoded the information verbally．

26. Conversely，improved encoding of what

they hear may help them better understand and remember stories and thus make the stories more useful for remembering future events.

27. Missing until recently were fossils clearly intermediate, or transitional, between land mammals and cetaceans.

28. Pakicetus was found embedded in rocks formed from river deposits that were 52 million years old.

29. The skull is cetacean-like but its jawbones lack the enlarged space that is filled with fat or oil and used for receiving underwater sound in modern whales.

30. Several skeletons of another early whale, Basilosaurus, were found in sediments left by the Tethys Sea and now exposed in the Sahara desert.

31. The expansion of desert like conditions into areas where they did not previously exist is called desertification.

32. In some cases the loose soil is blown completely away, leaving a stony surface.

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