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浅析中国学生英语阅读中的错误

浅析中国学生英语阅读中的错误
浅析中国学生英语阅读中的错误

浅析中国学生英语阅读中的错误

摘要:根据心理学的理论观点关于语言教学和交际方法在语言上的学习,本文简要分析了中国学生在阅读中以及作者在自己的教学经验中遇到的一些具体的错误。该文章是在试图克服存在于现有文案的作家和读者之间的语言障碍,使后者成为一个有效率的读者。

关键词:心理语言学,交际,错误,阅读理解。

一.教学

英语阅读在外语学习中一直被视为最重要的一个部分。没有阅读能力,对听力,口语,写作和翻译的提高将一无是处。读的课程,或者更确切地说,精读,构成了课程的一个大的组成部分。显然,学生和教师要高度重视阅读课程的重要性。

什么是阅读?如何才能让中国学生实现精通的阅读?

二.心理语言学理论的观点和交际法

我们知道,心理模型电图是古德曼(1967 )和史密斯(1971年)提出的一个很有意义的模型电图。古德曼认为,在阅读过程中,"读者尽可能的把已经被一个作家编码的信息转变成一个图象展示出来" (古德曼1973年)。史密斯说:"阅读技能实际完全取决于眼睛的巧妙使用,因为我们要成为一名好的读者更多地依赖于我们已经知道的,眼睛所看到的是什么,而不是摆在我们面前的的打印在纸页上的(1978年)。该心理学家提出,如果读者有改变语言提示的能力,那么他就可以解码,通过在心理对信息文字的加工,然后分享作家打算转达的其中的大部分信息。

外语的交流方法,普遍流行于第二次世界大战后,认为大多数外语学习的首要目标是发展使用真正的和适当的语言与他人进行交流和互动.外语教学的目标是扩大交际情景的范围,在这一情景中学习者可以专注在意义上,而不是被一些语言形式所阻碍他的交流。"(李特尔伍德,1981年)。在交际的教学模式中,课堂教育是以学生为中心,在学生和教师,学生和学生之间开展的交际活动。但是,有效的沟通仍然取决于成功解码的"意思"的理解,即必须立即使听众理解发言者想要传达的信息。沟通效率意味着学生们应该能够在所有的四个技能中有效地使用并达到相互的沟通。因此,阅读能力,它也可以被看作是沟通读者和作者的桥梁,应该有一些共同的心理与交际法的英语:阅读(和听力)被视为一个积极的心理过程;一个文本(或话语)假定有其潜在的含义,它的真实含义取决于读者(或听众的)自身理解的文本含义(或话语)。

作家和读者二者之间的关系的可用这个简单的流程图表示:

作家或发言者→文字或话语(带有信息或含义)→读者或听众

这清楚地表明,阅读的目的是尽可能的摆脱文字的信息,理解作者想要表达的东西。然而,我们可能会发现很容易:由于读者的反映结果千奇百怪各有不同,可能不一定实现作家的预期要求。在作家和读者之间还有许多有待探讨的空间:是什么制约阻止了读者与作家分享信息?我认为教师的作用是缩小差距并帮助学生成为有效率的读者的影响因素。

三.在阅读理解中出现的一些具体的错误

汉语完全不同于英语。前者属于中藏语系,而后者属于欧洲语言类型。因此,当汉语学习者试图了解英文的文字,他们会在许多方面会面临语言问题:单词的拼写,性别,动词形式,时态和语序。除了这些,我想讨论一些在作家和读者之间阻碍他们相互了解的一些因素.

1.词汇和语法错误。

如"想象力"和"虚有的"和"空的"的词语,在我的课堂上,以汉语为母语的他们往往会碰到到误解词汇和误用词汇这样的问题。但是,我发现我的学生更容易接触到的是连续使用介词这类的文章。我相信原因是因为这些句子是在中文中从未使用过,因此难以处理。例如,他们可能很难理解这两句话

第一位发言者的用意是用"他"这个措辞和"我"这样的词汇,第二个发言者要告诉一个人要是没有了男人就象一条鱼没有了自行车。中国学生可能会觉得失去了意义,因为他或她常常忽略了"小单词"的混淆,如一些文章的介词。在他们的老师提供帮助之前学生可能会被要求区分不同情景的句子含义。

汉语是一个分析型语言,一个句子在不同地区之间的关系完全基于推理英语,但是,一种合成的语言之间与不同部分之间的关系通常是与分析这些单词和句子结构相联系的。当然,在大多数情况下我们看一下教材后,疑惑可被清除,但有时甚至教材也无助。在我们弄懂之前我们必须清楚地了解"是什么修饰什么",我们才能有更深入的了解,特别是那些有复杂的结构的长句子.看看这个句子:

因为中国学生不善于使用来连接的介词像"BY " "OF" "FOR"等.这句话对他们来说

确实是一个相当大的挑战了。在仔细分析常识和语法知识的基础上就可以解开这个问题。问题的关键在于两个系列的相关词组:完成相关设施的主管部门问题,正式接受防火措施,由保险公司或其代表。

对于中国学生第一次看到结构复杂的长句的情况下要顺利理解这并不容易,。为了解决这个问题,一个语法分析是必要的,但可以做到这一点的学生都是在课前预习或者是课后查找的.只有当学生不能提出一个合理的解释,这时老师应该做的工作就是为他们解释这个问题("这个从句"的主语的动词"SAID"和"关系代词WHICH"是作为一种定语修饰"失败" ) .当读者重新审视文字意义的时候,他不可避免地使用一些符号来标

记句法结构和语义相关的语言。教师的任务是指出学生可能存在的问题,并引导他们解决问题。

2."字里行间"的意思

然而,中国的读者往往会丢失"字里行间的段落寓意或含义。假设学生们被要求阅读以下一段:

"如果您有兴趣购买一对隐形眼镜,是愿意支付200美元还是更多的钱呢。一般来说购买隐型眼镜主要有三个原因,人们需要隐形眼镜。您可能需要它们,因为你的眼睛可能出现了近视问题而且普通的近视眼镜你觉得不是很满意。如果是这样的话,有百分1至2的比例可以配戴隐形眼镜。但您可能希望他们是一种运动,兴趣,或职业。也许你是一名棒球运动员,一个拳击手,一个游泳者,一个飞行员,一个演员,或者您从事的行业在工作过程中可能危及你的眼睛。如果您使用隐形眼镜,那么您是在约百分之二十的用户这一比例中。但是,如果由于某种原因,您认为戴眼镜影响您的外观而且你宁愿戴隐形眼镜,这样你会得到很多的好处。大约百分之七十九的用户都希望改善他们的样貌。学生们则要求作出决定;下列哪些可以代表作家的文章大意?A或B

答:A给出人们配戴隐形眼镜的原因。

B.对人们来说,戴隐型眼镜有时是徒劳的。

根据我的经验,许多读者会选择A,因为他们可以很容易地找到足够的证据支持这一观点.如果我们进一步深深地考虑后,我们发现他们没有注意到使用者之间合理的关系,也就是说,当给出每一个用户使用的原因时,作家永远没有提到使用者的比例时。大多数佩戴者似乎认为,隐形眼镜比眼镜更具吸引力。虽然确立了他的上下文关系段内的意图,它对学生制定出他真正的手段转移可能仍然是很困难的。

3.照应表达式

照应表达是中国学生在阅读理解中的另一个困难。据桂诗春(1991年),范围,替代,省略和词汇衔接常常在韩礼德和哈桑的著作在该议题下被谈论。作者的意思是通过参考和替代。即作家指出一个字,一个事实,一个句子或在文章中任何地方提到的。除了代名词,几乎所有其他地方的话语都可作为参考的话。通常这些话将与他们提到的部分密切相关,但有时他们似乎与上述提到的部分毫无联系。学生应能查明共指,如有必要,他们应该搜索相邻的文字,直到他们找到所需的指称。下面是一些例子:

答:A他给了她一封信。这给了她很多深思。

是什么使她思考:这封信,还是他给她信这样一个事实?

B.他们说的都是相同的。

相同的指的是谁,或者是什么东西相同?

C配备了同样的角穿孔天花板,使每间客房很好的通风。

代词"同样的"具体是指什么?

D因此,自信导致耻辱,而且是危险的人,他们是因为它们是谁的人.

代词"他们"和"他们" "谁" "人"代表什么?

讨厌不必要的重复就是参考和替代系统被使用的原因。出于同样的原因,作家喜欢省略,而不是重复某些种类的信息,他认为读者的常识可随时在文章内提到。这一遗漏称为省略号,处理省略号,学生们必须认识到,信息是不完整的。优秀学生将诉诸非视觉知识和语法分析来解决这个问题。但是,做为一个知识薄弱的学生,他可能遇到以下两个句子:

答:A他告诉我们它的位置是隐藏的,尽管别人反对的眼神他向我们展示了方位.B 第一位发言者的主要观点,和其他人的见解相一致。

在A句中谁说要承诺向我们展示方位?在句B中什么是一致的?学生可能被要求写出省略的信息。

4.不同的思维方式和表达

中国人民和英语为母语的本土英国人有不同的思维方式和表达方式,由于它们各自的和独特的社会现实和地理环境。在这方面的问题出现于我们的学生在他们的英文文本的理解上:因为我们没有他们的经验,我们不知道这意味着什么,不仅是语言,还有情绪和认知。

一个典型的例子是英文否定的形式。我们经常遇到的是肯定的形式,但是否定的的形式有时也表示肯定的含义。"我知道的更好"是指"我不这么认为" ,而"我无法感觉更好"被理解为"我感觉非常好" 。以下两个句子也可能会疑惑中国的读者:

你可以有一个更好的时间。

我希望你没有成为属于您的一匹黑马。

作为中国学生来说,讲英语的人对于上面俩个句子有一个独特的否定方式。在我班上唯一的一个有效率的读者对第一句的理解是"你是在错误的时间" ,第二个有一个"我希望你从你的马身上摔下来没有受伤。"

有时会产生歧义时,人们和讲英语的人从不同的角度看待事物。看看这些句子:

我坐在后面。

他不是他父亲的长子这没有什么。

在我的课堂上,不是所有的学生可以都理解第一句话的含义."我是在喝啤酒",第二个为"他是一个有能力的长子"

我被他们自己惯用的方式所影响,中国学生在英语习语中很容易犯错误。我的学生很容易被以下表达方式所误导"

在聚会后,他负了帐单。(他没有逃避帐单。)

她点头地笑了。(她没有持有嘲笑别人的笑。)

她是一个行走的骨架。(她不是一个一钱不值的人。)

母语的干扰有时是非常强劲的。每当出现问题,英语教师应注意纠正误解

5.非语言信息

阅读需要视觉和非视觉信息。如果读者缺乏非视觉信息(他已经知道的关于文章的语言,以及对世界的大体理解),他的视觉信息的解释,将受到严重限制,因为他可以看到的是凭他的大脑反映来解释" (史密斯,1973年)。这是一个思想和平面设计的相互作用。因此,为了解码这些图形设计,读者必须具备对世界知识和语言的理解,就像斯科特(1984 )说:"读,基本上是'自上而下'的过程,即读者的样本文字视觉,教师可采取上述两件事情到:一个是中国学生应该读的阅读材料,另一个则是有必要的应当用一种或另一种方式提出首要知识。例如:

我可以把你比做夏天吗?

艺术更可爱更有人情味(莎士比亚)

一个中国学生掌握的知识,春天是一个愉快的季节,而夏季通常是与难以忍受的高温相联系。但是在英格兰,夏季温暖和舒适。显然,一些地理知识也应该清楚知道。

数字表明,海关,地理特征等可以提供可能的来源去支持我们探讨。通常的背景知识是由教师传授,学生被动地听老师的介绍。用交际处理.如果可能的话,教师可以把此工作留给学生。

四.结论

在这项研究中我引用了很多引文说明一些限制阻碍了中国学生有效的阅读。不过,我打算在这里不作整体描述,但有使我们注意的一些隐患,其中特别是中国学生容易误解的陷阱。

为了使阅读教学更有效,我们把多年纳入的一些外语教学技巧纳入本框架。然而,这并不意味着完全放弃了传统的方式或通过一项彻头彻尾的新的外交方针。因为我们是

在国内教学中国学生,任何偏离教学方法的具体情况既不可能也不现实。正确的态度,我们应该是采用国外先进的理论,一方面,在此基础上的优势已经包含在目前的教学框架的问题。

最后,因为阅读教学本质上是基于文本的,我们应该去进一步研究现有的学生和他们文本之间的制约因素,以便帮助他们消除障碍,使作家和读者之间完全沟通,使他们能够成为有效率的读者。

Brief Analysis of Chinese Students' Errors in English

(Medical Instrumentation College of Shanghai Science Engineering University, Shanghai 200093)

Abstract: On the basis of the theories of psycholinguistic perspective in language teaching and communicative approach in language learning, this paper analyses briefly some tangible errors for the Chinese students in their reading in line with the author's own teaching experiences. The paper is an attempt at overcoming the obstacles existing between the text writers and the text readers and enabling the latter to become effective readers.

Key words: psycholinguistic, communicative, errors, reading comprehension

1. Instruction

English reading has always been considered one of the most important parts of foreign language learning. Without reading, nothing can be done in the development of the competence in listening, speaking, writing and translating. Reading courses, or rather, intensive reading ones, fill up a large component of the curricula. Obviously, students and teacher should pay great attention to the importance of reading courses. And what is reading? How can Chinese students achieve proficient reading

2.Theory of psycholinguistic perspective and communicative approach

As we know, the psycholinguistic model of EFT is a meaning-based model proposed by Goodman (1967) and Smith (1971). Goodman thinks that in the reading process the "reader reconstructs, as best as he can, a message which has been encoded by a writer as a graphic display" (Goodman 1973). Smith says "oooskill in reading actually depends on using the eyes as little as possible, oooas we become fluent readers we learn to rely more on what we already know, on what is behind the eyeballs, and less on the print on the page in front of us"(1978). The psycholinguists

assume that if the reader has the ability to select the productive language cues, he can decode, through his psycholinguistic processing, the message in the text, and share much of information which the writer intends to convey.

The communicative approach of EFL, Which prevails after World War Ⅱ,holds that "The primary goal of most foreign language learning is to develop the ability to use real and appropriate language to communicate and interact with others, and the goal of foreign language teaching is to extend the range of communicative situation in which the learners can perform with focus on meaning without being hindered by the attention he must pay to linguistic form."(Littlewood,1981). In communicative teaching model, the class is students-centred, and communicative activities are performed between students and the teachers, students and students. But efficient communication still depends on successful decoding of the "meaning" of the discourses, that is, a listener must instantly make out what a speaker wants to get across. And communicative efficiency means that students should be able to do efficiently in all of the four skills. So reading competence, which can be considered as a communication between readers and writers, should also be brought into full consideration.

There should be something in common with both the psycholinguistic perspective of EFT and communicative approach of EFL: reading (and listening) should be regarded as an active psycholinguistic process; a text (or discourse) is assumed to have its potential meaning; and it's real meaning depends on the reader's(or listener's)interaction with the text(or discourse). The relationship between a writer and a reader may be represented in this simple flow chart:

writer or speaker →Text or discourse(with message or meaning)→Reader or listener

This proceeding clearly shows that the purpose of reading is to try to get out of a text as much as possible the message that the writer has tried to put into it. However, we may find it vulnerable: the result of the readers' interaction will vary from one to another, and a reader does not necessarily achieve what the writer expects. There is much that remains to be explored with in the span between the writer and the reader: what constraints prevent the reader from sharing the message (meaning) with the writer? A teacher's role, I think, is to bridge the gap and help the students become efficient readers.

3.Some Tangible Errors in Reading Comprehension

The Chinese language is totally different from the English language. The former belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family and the latter to the Indo-European language family. Therefore, When Chinese learners attempt to understand a text in English, they face linguistic problems in various respects: spelling, gender, verb forms, tenses and word order. In addition to these, I'd like to discuss some other obstacles between writers and readers.

3.1 Lexical and syntactical errors.

Words such as "imaginative" and "imaginary" and "respectable" are often misunderstood and misused by Chinese learners as in their mother tongue words have virtually no inflexions. In my classroom, however, I have found my students more liable to stumble over articles and prepositions. I believe the reason is that these particles are never used in the Chinese language and hence difficult to handle. For example, they may find it difficult to understand these two sentences:

I am never at a loss for a word, and he is never at a loss for the word.

A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle.

The first speaker aims at "his" proficiency of wording and "my" casual choice of words, and the second speaker wants to tell that a man is no more necessary to a woman than a bicycle to a fish. The Chinese student might feel at a loss for the meaning because he or she often overlooks the confusing "small words" such as articles and prepositions. Students may be asked to distinguish varied shades of meanings when particles are used before the teacher offers his help.

Chinese is an analytic language and the relationship between the different parts of a sentence is based on reasoning. English, however, is a synthetic language and the relationship between the different parts is usually decided by analysis of those connecting words and the sentence structure. Naturally, in most cases the ambiguity can be cleared up when we look at the context, but sometimes even the context doesn't help. We have to make clear about "Which governs what" before we have a better understanding, especially those lengthy ones with complicated structures. Look at this sentence:

The start-up program for the reactor must not be commenced before completion and formal acceptance of fire precautions and associated installations by the competent authorities in question and by the insures or their representative.

For the Chinese students who are not used to the connecting words "of" "by" "for" etc. this sentence is really a challenge for them. A careful analysis based on

common sense and grammatical knowledge can dissolve the mystery. The key to the problem lies in the two series of related phrases:

Completion of associated installations by the competent authorities in question

Formal acceptance of fire precautions by the insurers or their representative

Another example:

The president said at a press conference dominated by questions on yesterday's election results that he could not explain why the Republicans had suffered such a widespread defeat, which in the end would deprive the Republican Party of long-held superiority in the House.

It's not easy for a Chinese student to smooth out the complicated structure of this long sentence at first sight. In order to decode these graphic signs, a grammatical analysis is necessary, but this can be done by the students before or after class. Only when the students fail to present an acceptable explanation should the teacher do the job for them ("That-clause" is the object of the verb "said" and "which-clause" is used as an attribute modifying "defeat")

When the reader reconstructs meaning from the text, he has unavoidably to use the graphic symbols, syntactic structures and semantic systems of the language. The teacher's task is to point out possible difficulties for the students and guide them to attack the problems.

3.2 Meaning "between the lines"

And moreover, Chinese readers often get lost while reading paragraphs with implied meanings or meanings "between the lines". Suppose the students are asked to read the following paragraph:

"If you are interested in buying a pair of contact lenses, be prepared to pay $200 or more. Generally there are three main reasons why people want contact lenses. You may need them because the cornea of your eye is misshapen and ordinary glasses are not satisfactory. If so, you'll be in the group that comprises 1 to 2 per cent of contact lens wearers. But you may want them for a sport, avocation, or vocation. Perhaps you're a baseball player, a boxer, a swimmer, an aviator, an actor, or perhaps you're engaged in an industry where flying particles may endanger your eyes. If you get your contact lenses for one of these reasons, you are in the same group with about 20 per cent of the users. But if for some reasons, you feel that glasses are handicapping our

appearance and you would rather have invisible glasses, you'll have lots of company. About 79 per cent of lens users hope to improve their looks."

The students are then asked to make a decision; which of the following can represent the writer's intention? A or B.

A.To give the reasons for people wearing contact lenses.

B.To say that man is sometimes vain.

In accordance with my experiences, many readers will prefer A because they can easily find enough evidence to support that decision. If we take the paragraph into further consideration however, we find that they have failed to notice the rational relationship between the users, that is, the writer never fails to mention the percentage of users when giving each reason. The majority of wearers seem to feel that contact lenses are more attractive than glasses. Although the writer purposely establishes his contextual relationship within the paragraph, it may still be difficult for the students to work out what he really means to transfer.

3.3 Anaphoric expressions

Anaphoric expression is another pitfall for Chinese students in their reading comprehension. According to Gui Shichun (1991), reference, substitution, ellipsis and lexical cohesion are often talked about under that topic of anaphora in Halliday's and Hasan's writings. By reference and substitution the author means the fact that a writer refers back or forward to a word, a fact, a sentence or whatever has been mentioned somewhere else in the text. Besides pronouns, almost all other parts of speech can be used as reference words. Usually these words follow closely the parts they refer to, but sometimes they appear far from the mentioned parts. Students should be able to identify the coreference, and, if necessary, they should be asked to search the adjacent text until they find the required referents. Here are some examples:

A. He gave her a letter. This gave her food for thought.

What made her think : the letter, or the fact that he gave it?

B. They all said the same.

The same as who, or what?

C. Perforated ceilings and plenums above same are equipped to make every room well - ventilated

The pronoun "same" refers to what?

D Therefore, confidences result in dishonor, and they are as dangerous for the

person to whom they are made as they are for the person who makes them..

What do the pronouns "they" "them" "who" "whom" stand for?

Dislike of needless repetition is the reason why the reference and substitution systems are used. For the same reason, a writer likes to omit rather than repeat certain kinds of information that he thinks a reader's common sense can readily supply from the context. This omission is called ellipsis

To deal with ellipsis, students must be aware that the information is incomplete and that they are able to retrieve what is left unsaid. Able students will resort to their non-visual knowledge and grammatical analysis to tackle the problem. But to a weak student, he may have trouble with the following two example sentences:

A. He told us where it was hidden and despite the disapproving glances of the others promised to show us the way.

B. The main point made by the first speaker and the man who followed him on the panel coincided.

tudents could be asked to repair the omissions.

3.4 Different ways of thinking and expression

Chinese people and English native speakers have different ways of thinking and modes of expression, owing to their respective and unique social practice and geographic environments. In this connection arise the problems in our students' comprehension of their English texts: because we don't have their experiences, we don't know what it means, not only linguistically, but also emotionally and cognitively.

A case in point is the English way of negation. We often come across the statements which are affirmative in form but negative in content, or vice versa. "I know better" means" I don't think so", while" I couldn't feel better" is understood as "I'm feeling great". The following two sentences may also puzzle the Chinese readers:

You could have come at a better time.

I hope you're none the worse for that fall from your horse.

To Chinese students, English speaking people have a peculiar way of negation in the above two sentences. In my class only efficient readers can understand the first sentence as "You have come at a wrong time" and the second one as "I hope you didn't hurt by the fall from your horse."

Ambiguity sometimes arises when Chinese people and English speaking people look at things at different angles. Look at these sentences:

I was sitting behind a pint.

He was not the eldest son of his father for nothing.

In my class, not all students can understand the first sentence as "I was drinking beer" and the second one as "He was a capable eldest son of his father",

I fluenced by their own idiomatic way of saying things, Chinese students have an inclination to mistake an English idiom for a Chinese one. My students are liable to be misled by the following expressions:

After the party, he footed the bill. (He did not tread on the bill.)

She laughed her head off. (She didn't hold someone up to ridicule.)

She was a walking skeleton. (She was not an utterly worthless person.)

The interference by the mother tongue is sometimes very strong. Whenever problems arise, teachers of English should give heed to rectification of the misunderstanding

3.5 Non -linguistic information

Reading needs both visual and non-visual information. If a reader lacks

non-visual information (what he has already known about the reading text, about the language, and about the world in general), his interpretation of the visual information will be severely limited, because what he can see is his brain's interpretation of the brain"(Smith, 1973). This is an interaction between thought and graphic designs. Therefore, in order to decode those graphic designs, a reader must be equipped with both the knowledge of language and of the world, just as Scott (1984) says" reading is essentially a 'top-down' process, whereby the reader samples the text visually, a teacher may take these two things into account: one is that the reading material should be readable for the Chinese students; the other is that the necessary prior knowledge should be provided in one way or another. For example:

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?

Thou art more lovely and more temperate (Shakespeare)

To a Chinese student's knowledge, spring is a pleasant season while summer is usually associated with unbearable heat. But in England, summer is mild and comfortable. Obviously some geographical knowledge should be introduced here.

Descriptions of figures, customs, geographical features, etc . can provide possible sources to explore. Usually background knowledge is imparted by the teachers , with students listening passively to the teacher's introduction. With a view to communicative processing, the teacher can leave this job to the students, if possible.

4. Conclusion

In this study I can quote several more restraints which hinders the Chinese students from efficient reading. However, my intention here is not to make an overall description of the known facts, but to bring our attention to some of the pitfalls, which particularly trap the Chinese students into misunderstanding.

To make the reading class more efficient, we have for many years incorporated some foreign language teaching techniques into the present framework. However, this does not mean to discard completely the traditional way or adopt an out-and-out new foreign approach. As we are teaching Chinese students inside of China, any teaching methodology deviating from the concrete situation is neither possible nor realistic. The correct attitude we should have is to adopt advanced foreign theories on the one hand, and build on the strengths already inherent in the present teaching framework on the other. In conclusion, since a reading class is by nature a text-based one, we should go into further study of the constraints existing between the students and their texts, so as to help them remove the impediments to the communication between writers and readers, and enable them to become effective readers.

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