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Formation of the First Stars

Formation of the First Stars
Formation of the First Stars

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From Lithium to Uranium:Elemental Tracers of Early Cosmic Evo-lution Proceedings IAU Symposium No.228,2005V.Hill,P.Fran?c ois &F.Primas,eds.c 2005International Astronomical Union DOI:00.0000/X000000000000000X Formation of the First Stars Volker Bromm 11Department of Astronomy,University of Texas,Austin,TX 78712,USA email:vbromm@https://www.wendangku.net/doc/f413338403.html, Abstract.How and when did the ?rst generation of stars form at the end of the cosmic dark ages?Quite generically,within variants of the cold dark matter model of cosmological structure formation,the ?rst sources of light are expected to form in ~106M ⊙dark matter potential wells at redshifts z 20.I discuss the physical processes that govern the formation of the ?rst stars.These so-called Population III stars are predicted to be predominantly very massive,and to have contributed signi?cantly to the early reionization of the intergalactic medium.Such an early reionization epoch is inferred from the recent measurement of the Thomson optical depth by the WMAP satellite.I address the importance of heavy elements in bringing about the transition from an early star formation mode dominated by massive stars,to the familiar mode dominated by low mass stars,at later times,and present possible observational probes.This transition could have been gradual,giving rise to an intermediate-mass population of still virtually metal-free stars (“Population II.5”).These stars could have given rise to the peculiar class of black-hole forming supernovae inferred from the abundance pattern of extremely iron-poor stars.Keywords.cosmology:theory,stars:formation,supernovae:general

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Figure1.Collapse and fragmentation of a primordial cloud.Shown is the projected gas density at a redshift z?21.5,brie?y after gravitational runaway collapse has commenced in the center of the cloud.Left:The coarse-grained morphology in a box with linear physical size of23.5pc. Right:The?ne-grain morphology in a box with linear physical size of0.5pc.The central density peak,vigorously gaining mass by accretion,is accompanied by a secondary clump.(Adapted from Bromm&Loeb2004.)

as energetic hypernovae.These negative feedback e?ects could suppress star formation in neighboring high-density clumps.

Predicting the properties of the?rst sources of light,in particular their expected lu-minosities and spectral energy distributions,is important for the design of upcoming instruments,such as the James Webb Space Telescope(JWST)?,or the next generation of large(>10m)ground-based telescopes.The hope is that over the upcoming decade, it will become possible to confront current theoretical predictions about the properties of the?rst stars with direct observational data.

2.Population III star formation

The metal-rich chemistry,magnetohydrodynamics,and radiative transfer involved in present-day star formation is complex,and we still lack a comprehensive theoretical framework that predicts the IMF from?rst principles(see Larson2003for a recent review).Star formation in the high redshift universe,on the other hand,poses a theo-retically more tractable problem due to a number of simplifying features,such as:(i)the initial absence of heavy metals and therefore of dust;and(ii)the absence of dynamically-signi?cant magnetic?elds,in the pristine gas left over from the big bang.The cooling of the primordial gas does then only depend on hydrogen in its atomic and molecu-lar form.Whereas the initial state of the star forming cloud is poorly constrained in the present-day interstellar medium,the corresponding initial conditions for primordial star formation are simple,given by the popularΛCDM model of cosmological structure formation.

How did the?rst stars form?A complete answer to this question would entail a the-oretical prediction for the Population III IMF,which is rather challenging.Let us start by addressing the simpler problem of estimating the characteristic mass scale of the?rst stars.This mass scale is observed to be~1M⊙in the present-day universe.To investigate

?See https://www.wendangku.net/doc/f413338403.html,.

First Stars3 the collapse and fragmentation of primordial gas,we have carried out numerical simula-tions,using the smoothed particle hydrodynamics(SPH)method.We have included the chemistry and cooling physics relevant for the evolution of metal-free gas(see Bromm et al.2002for details).Improving on earlier work(Bromm et al.1999,2002)by initializing our simulation according to theΛCDM model,we focus here on an isolated overdense region that corresponds to a3σ?peak:a halo containing a total mass of106M⊙,and collapsing at a redshift z vir?20(Bromm&Loeb2004).In Figure1(left panel),we show the gas density within the central~25pc,brie?y after the?rst high-density clump has formed as a result of gravitational runaway collapse.

How massive were the?rst stars?Star formation typically proceeds from the‘inside-out’,through the accretion of gas onto a central hydrostatic core.Whereas the initial mass of the hydrostatic core is very similar for primordial and present-day star formation (Omukai&Nishi1998),the accretion process–ultimately responsible for setting the?nal stellar mass,is expected to be rather di?erent.On dimensional grounds,the accretion rate is simply related to the sound speed cubed over Newton’s constant(or equivalently given by the ratio of the Jeans mass and the free-fall time):˙M acc~c3s/G∝T3/2.A simple comparison of the temperatures in present-day star forming regions(T~10K) with those in primordial ones(T~200?300K)already indicates a di?erence in the accretion rate of more than two orders of magnitude.

Our high-resolution simulation enables us to study the three-dimensional accretion ?ow around the protostar(see also Omukai&Palla2001,2003;Ripamonti et al.2002; Tan&McKee2003).We allow the gas to reach densities of1012cm?3before being incorporated into a central sink particle.At these high densities,three-body reactions (Palla,Salpeter,&Stahler1983)have converted the gas into a fully molecular form.In Figure2,we show how the molecular core grows in mass over the?rst~104yr after its formation.The accretion rate(left panel)is initially very high,˙M acc~0.1M⊙yr?1,and subsequently declines with time.The mass of the molecular core(right panel),taken as

Figure2.Accretion onto a primordial protostar.The morphology of this accretion?ow is shown in Fig.1.Left:Accretion rate(in M⊙yr?1)vs.time(in yr)since molecular core formation. Right:Mass of the central core(in M⊙)vs.time.Solid line:Accretion history approximated as: M?∝t0.75at t<103yr,and M?∝https://www.wendangku.net/doc/f413338403.html,ing this analytical approximation,we extrapolate that the protostellar mass has grown to~120M⊙after~105yr,and to~500M⊙after~3×106yr,the total lifetime of a very massive star.(Adapted from Bromm&Loeb 2004.)

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an estimator of the proto-stellar mass,grows approximately as:M?~ ˙M acc d t∝t0.75at t<103yr,and M?∝t0.4afterwards.A rough upper limit for the?nal mass of the star is then:M?(t=3×106yr)~500M⊙.In deriving this upper bound,we have conservatively assumed that accretion cannot go on for longer than the total lifetime of a very massive star(VMS).

Can a Population III star ever reach this asymptotic mass limit?The answer to this question is not yet known with any certainty,and it depends on whether the accretion from a dust-free envelope is eventually terminated by feedback from the star(e.g.,Omukai &Palla2001,2003;Omukai&Inutsuka2002;Ripamonti et al.2002;Tan&McKee 2003).The standard mechanism by which accretion may be terminated in metal-rich gas, namely radiation pressure on dust grains(e.g.,Wol?re&Cassinelli1987),is evidently not e?ective for gas with a primordial composition.Recently,it has been speculated that accretion could instead be turned o?through the formation of an H II region(Omukai& Inutsuka2002),or through the radiation pressure exerted by trapped Lyαphotons(Tan &McKee2003).The termination of the accretion process de?nes the current unsolved frontier in studies of Population III star formation.

3.Second generation stars

How and when did the transition take place from the early formation of massive stars to that of low-mass stars at later times?In contrast to the formation mode of massive stars(Population III)at high redshifts,fragmentation is observed to favor stars below a solar mass(Population I and II)in the present-day universe.The transition between these fundamental modes is expected to be mainly driven by the progressive enrichment of the cosmic gas with heavy elements,which enables the gas to cool to lower temperatures. The concept of a‘critical metallicity’,Z crit,has been used to characterize the transition between Population III and Population II formation modes,where Z denotes the mass fraction contributed by all heavy elements(Omukai2000;Bromm et al.2001;Schneider et al.2002;Schneider et al.2003;Mackey,Bromm,&Hernquist2003;Yoshida,Bromm, &Hernquist2004).These studies have constrained this important parameter to only within a few orders of magnitude,Z crit~10?6?10?3Z⊙,under the implicit assumption of solar relative abundances of metals.This assumption is likely to be violated by the metal yields of the?rst SNe at high-redshifts,for which strong deviations from solar abundance ratios are predicted(e.g.,Heger&Woosley2002;Qian&Wasserburg2002; Umeda&Nomoto2002,2003).

Recently,we have shown that the transition between the above star formation modes is driven primarily by?ne-structure line cooling of singly-ionized carbon or neutral atomic oxygen(Bromm&Loeb2003).Earlier estimates of Z crit which did not explic-itly distinguish between di?erent coolants are re?ned by introducing separate critical abundances for carbon and oxygen,[C/H]crit and[O/H]crit,respectively,where[A/H]= log10(N A/N H)?log10(N A/N H)⊙.Since C and O are also the most important coolants throughout most of the cool atomic ISM in present-day galaxies,it is not implausible that these species might be responsible for the global shift in the star formation mode. Under the temperature and density conditions that characterize Population III star for-mation,the?ne-structure lines of O I and C II dominate over all other metal transitions. Cooling due to molecules becomes important only at lower temperatures,and cooling due to dust grains only at higher densities(e.g.,Omukai2000,Schneider et al.2003). Numerically,the critical C and O abundances are estimated to be:[C/H]crit??3.5±0.1 and[O/H]crit??3.1±0.2.

Even if su?cient C or O atoms are present to further cool the gas,there will be a

First Stars5

Figure3.Evolution of HD abundance in four distinct cases.Solid line:Gas compressed and heated by a SN explosion with u sh=100km s?1.Dotted line:Gas shocked in the build-up of a 3σ?uctuation dark matter halo collapsing at z?15.Dash-dotted line:Gas collapsing inside a relic HII region,which is left behind after the death of a very massive Pop III star.Dashed line: Gas collapsing inside a minihalo at z?20.In this case,the gas does not experience a strong shock,and is never ionized.Contrary to the other three cases,where the gas went through a fully ionized phase,HD cooling is not important here.The critical HD abundance,shown by the bold dashed line,is de?ned such that primordial gas is able to cool to the CMB temperature within the fraction of a Hubble time.The CMB sets a minimum?oor to the gas temperature,because radiative cooling below this?lor is thermodynamically not possible.The HD abundance exceeds the critical value in a time which is short compared to the Hubble time for all fully-ionized, strongly shocked cases.(Adapted from Johnson&Bromm2005.)

minimum attainable temperature that is set by the interaction of the atoms with the thermal CMB:T CMB=2.7K(1+z)(e.g.,,).At z?15,this results in a characteristic stellar mass of M?~20M⊙(n f/104cm?3)?1/2,where n f>104cm?3is the density at which opacity prevents further fragmentation.It is possible that the transition from the high-mass to the low-mass star formation mode was modulated by the CMB tempera-ture and was therefore gradual,involving intermediate-mass(‘Population II.5’)stars at intermediate redshifts().This transitional population could give rise to the faint SNe that have been proposed to explain the observed abundance patterns in metal-poor stars (Umeda&Nomoto2002,2003).When and how uniformly the transition in the cosmic star formation mode did take place was governed by the detailed enrichment history of the IGM.This in turn was determined by the hydrodynamical transport and mixing of metals from the?rst SN explosions(e.g.,Mori,Ferrara,&Madau2002;Bromm,Yoshida, &Hernquist2003;Scannapieco,Schneider,&Ferrara2003;Wada&Venkatesan2003). Recently,the additional boost to the cooling of still metal-free gas provided by HD has been investigated(e.g.,Johnson&Bromm2005,and references therein).If the primordial gas goes through a strongly shocked,fully ionized phase prior to the onset of protostellar collapse,cooling is possible down to the temperature of the CMB which sets the minimum ?oor accessible via radiative cooling(see Figure3).The lower temperatures in turn could

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allow the fragmentation into intermediate-mass stars,with masses of order a few tens of M⊙,giving rise to a possible“Population II.5”(see Figure4).

4.Stellar fossils

It has long been realized that the most metal-poor stars found in our cosmic neighbor-hood would encode the signature from the?rst stars within their elemental abundance pattern.For many decades,however,the observational search has failed to discover a truly?rst-generation star with zero metallicity.Indeed,there seemed to have been an observational lower limit of[Fe/H]~?4(e.g.,Carr1987).In view of the recent theoreti-cal prediction that most Population III stars were very massive,with associated lifetimes of~106yr,the failure to?nd any‘living’Population III star in the Galaxy is not sur-prising,as they would all have died a long time ago.Furthermore,theory has predicted that star formation out of extremely low-metallicity gas,with Z Z crit~10?3.5Z⊙, would be essentially equivalent to that out of truly primordial gas.Again,this theoreti-cal prediction was in accordance with the apparent observed lower-metallicity cuto?. Recently,however,this simple picture has been challenged by the discovery of the star HE0107-5240with a mass of0.8M⊙and an iron abundance of[Fe/H]=?5.3(Christlieb et al.2002;Frebel et al.2005).This?nding indicates that at least some low mass stars could have formed out of extremely low-metallicity gas.Does the existence of this star invalidate the theory of a metallicity threshold for enabling low-mass star formation?A

Figure4.Characteristic mass of stars as a function of redshift.Pop III stars,formed out of metal-free gas,and not going through a fully ionized phase prior to the onset of collapse,have typical masses of M?~100M⊙.Pop II stars,formed out of already metal-enriched gas,are formed at lower redshifts,and have typical masses of M?~1M⊙.Pop II.5stars,formed out of strongly shocked,but still virtually metal-free gas,are hypothesized to have typical masses that are intermediate between Pop III and Pop II with M?~10M⊙.(Adapted from Johnson& Bromm2005.)

First Stars7

Figure5.Observed abundances in low-metallicity Galactic halo stars.For both carbon(upper panel)and oxygen(lower panel),?lled circles correspond to samples of dwarf and subgiant stars,and open squares to a sample of giant stars(see for references).The dashed lines indicate the predicted critical carbon and oxygen abundances.Highlighted(cross)is the location of the extremely iron-poor giant star HE0107-5240.(Adapted from Bromm&Loeb2003.) possible explanation(Umeda&Nomoto2003)could lie in the unusually high abundances of carbon and oxygen in HE0107-5240.

In Figure5,the theoretical C and O thresholds(Bromm&Loeb2003)are compared to the observed abundances in metal-poor dwarf and giant stars in the halo of our Galaxy (see Bromm&Loeb2003for references).As can be seen,all data points lie above the critical O abundance but a few cases lie below the critical C threshold.All of these low mass stars are consistent with the model since the corresponding O abundances lie above the predicted threshold.The sub-critical[C/H]abundances could have either originated in the progenitor cloud or from the mixing of CNO-processed material(with carbon converted into nitrogen)into the stellar atmosphere during the red giant phase.Note that the extremely iron-poor star HE0107-5240has C and O abundances that both lie

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above the respective critical levels.The formation of this low mass star(~0.8M⊙)is therefore consistent with the theoretical framework considered by Bromm&Loeb(2003). The lessons from stellar archaeology on the nature of the?rst stars are likely to increase in importance,since greatly improved,large surveys of metal-poor Galactic halo stars are under way,or are currently being planned.

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26个字母,26个钢琴键,可以用a-z来弹,也可以用鼠标,呵呵,大家可以来试试呀! <月亮代表我的心> LOQSONQS STUVTS QPOOO QPOOO PQPOMPQP LOQSONQS STUVTS QPOOO QPOOO PQPMNOPO QSQPOSN MNMNMLQ SQPOSN MNOOOPQP LOQSONQS STUVTS QPOOO QPOOO PQPMNOPO 《童话》 LONOL LONOL LONO OOMML LONOL LQPPO LONOM MMOTS PPRRQQ QQNPOONO ONOR LSRQP PPRRQQ QQVUTUV VPOT TTSSS LSRQQRQ QRQ RQPO OQST TTSPPRQ OQST TTSPPRQRQPO PQMMOONO 《安静》 QQQQPONPPPO LQPOOOLQPOOP QQQQPONPPPO LQPOOOLQPOOPPQR RRRRQPOOOPP LSSSRQPPPQQ MRQRQPOONOL QRQRQPOPS LQRSRQSLQRSRQS LQRSRQOPPPQO SSOONOOSSOONOO RRQQPPORRQQPPO LQRSRQSLQRSRQS LQRSRQOPPPQO SSOONOOSSOONOO RRQQPPOORQPOMOO 《好好恋爱》 JKLLLLLKJIIL NNONOOOPQNNL HMMMJMOLLLLJH KKKJKLMMMOML JKJJKLLLLJIHHO NMLML JHHMMLLLKJ OOOONOPP LRQLLRPLRQRQRQPO ONMMQMQMLLQLQL RQRQOP LRQLLRSPLRQQQRQPQ ONMMQMQMLLQLQPOM OPNMNMNQPOO 《痴心绝对》 OPQQQRQPPOPPSP ONOOOQQOOMNNQN MLMMMRRQSO MLMMMRROOMP OOPQQQRQPPOPPSP ONOOOQQOOMNNQN MLMMRRQSO MLMMMRROOONO 《会呼吸的痛》 STVTXXTW WWVUVWXWSV VUTUVRRRVVWVSSS SYXWXX STVTXXTW WWVUVWXWSVV VUTUVRRRVVWVSSS STUVVUVV

钢琴陪练中的十大要点

钢琴陪练中的十大要点 如今学习钢琴的孩子越来越多,家长在钢琴教育中扮演很重要的角色,但是很多家长往往过于着急,先入为主,以自己的想法约束了孩子的良性发展。那么,在钢琴学习过程中,家长有哪些地方值得注意呢?今天歆然教育就来和大家分享钢琴陪练中的十大要点。 一、不要包办代替 现在孩子弹琴,家长像侍候什么似的,忙着打开钢琴,放乐谱等,这些小事等到了一定的年龄都能自己完成,应该从小培养孩子自己的事自己做的良好习惯。 二、不要在线谱下注简谱 刚开始是慢些,慢慢就好的。实践证明,孩子在识谱初期,就需要“逼”一下,歆然教育在陪练的时候在加强识谱上有独特有效的方法。 三、不要急于指导 练习中,如发现弹错了音,或指法不对,应让孩子想一想错在哪里。遇到技术难点也让孩子思考一下,想想办法,不要一个劲的死弹。要他未发现或解决不了时再进行指导,急于说明会养成依赖性。 四、不要斥责打骂 家长不能急躁,要知道孩子也想把琴弹好。有一点差错就指责训斥,弄得孩子不知所措提不起精神来。要循循善诱让孩子静下心来不能一味的斥责。 五、一般老师不主张预习 初学阶段为了赶进度而超前预习,弊多利少。因为各种技术是一点一点加入的,预习难免出错。应该紧跟老师的步骤,把老师要求弹的曲子练熟,扎扎实实地学习。 六、不要打“疲劳战” 练习时要精神集中。一次最多一小时,如果时间多可以分散练习,长时间练习易使孩子疲劳效果会不好。 七、不要另教一套 懂一点音乐的家长对孩子练琴是有利的,但也要防止一意孤行。毕竟自己不是专业的有些时候还是要按着老师的方法来,不能把自己的东西强加给孩子。 八、不要光弹不听 现在市面上各种教学片很多,听得不够的儿童将缺乏乐感,练琴休息时听听歆然教育其

The way的用法及其含义(二)

The way的用法及其含义(二) 二、the way在句中的语法作用 the way在句中可以作主语、宾语或表语: 1.作主语 The way you are doing it is completely crazy.你这个干法简直发疯。 The way she puts on that accent really irritates me. 她故意操那种口音的样子实在令我恼火。The way she behaved towards him was utterly ruthless. 她对待他真是无情至极。 Words are important, but the way a person stands, folds his or her arms or moves his or her hands can also give us information about his or her feelings. 言语固然重要,但人的站姿,抱臂的方式和手势也回告诉我们他(她)的情感。 2.作宾语 I hate the way she stared at me.我讨厌她盯我看的样子。 We like the way that her hair hangs down.我们喜欢她的头发笔直地垂下来。 You could tell she was foreign by the way she was dressed. 从她的穿著就可以看出她是外国人。 She could not hide her amusement at the way he was dancing. 她见他跳舞的姿势,忍俊不禁。 3.作表语 This is the way the accident happened.这就是事故如何发生的。 Believe it or not, that's the way it is. 信不信由你, 反正事情就是这样。 That's the way I look at it, too. 我也是这么想。 That was the way minority nationalities were treated in old China. 那就是少数民族在旧中

名曲大全之电脑键盘钢琴谱

HONOOLLLLKKJ HONOOLLLLPPO H ONONMHNMNML HMLMLKKJKLMM L HONOOLLLLKKJ HONOOLLLLPP O HONONM HNMNML HMLMLKKJK LMML HLHKJ HHLHKJH 《蜗牛》 Flash键盘钢琴谱 J JJKJIJIH HHK KIHHIJ HHL LMLKJK GH EEJ JKJIJH EEH HEHIJKL HONN N ONMMNLHKLM MNOPQL EFLK KLK JIHI EEH HEHIJKL HONN NONMMNL HKLM MNOPQL EFLK KJIHHGH 《123木头人》 Flash键盘钢琴谱LKJJJ III JIHIJO NML MKJKJK IJKONL MLL LKJJJ ILN MNONM J LMK KPOL IJKKJKL J I H 《神秘园》 Flash键盘钢琴谱 jmno no opnmn nomlm lj jmno no opnmn nomlm lm nost tusrs noqr rsqpq nost tusrs strqr rsqpq jmno no opnmn nomlm lj jmno no opnmn nomlm lm

《轨迹》 Flash键盘钢琴谱 qeee reee weewqe qwee eweq hqewqw qee e reee weewqte qwee eweq hqewqw qjqjw q jwqjq q ttqqt qgqrewe ee rewqj wewq qtr ewqwet g r eee ereww weqq ett qttrr ewreq qq wEwqw gr eee ereww weqq ett qttrr e wreq qerw jq 《无赖》 Flash键盘钢琴谱HIJJIJKJIGE FGHHIJJMLJL JLMMMLK JKLLKJ JKKLKHI HIJJIJKJIGE FGHHI JJMLJL JLMMMLK JKLLKJ JKJHIH H HEFGHHIJHE EDDFEDE EFFGJIIHGH HHFEFG EEEJIHHIJHL JJLMMNOLJ JJ LMMMKMNMLKLJ JKJKLMLL EJIHH IJHL JJLMMNONJ JJLMMMKMNMLJI H JKJKLMLLJIHH 《海阔天空》 Flash键盘钢琴谱 QPO PQSSSSTS TUVVVVVVUTST TS S SQPO QRQPPQPP QPPPOOOO POO TUVVVVVVUTSSSQPO VVVVWWW

学钢琴如何少走弯路

学钢琴如何少走弯路 枯燥单调的初学内容就会让本来对钢琴弹奏充满向往的孩子失去热情,这就是所谓的“厌倦期”。这样就必须家长的努力和配合, 1.练习曲很枯燥,可以来帮助小孩子度过这个“厌倦期”。?? 让钢琴老师给孩子改变一下每周的曲子内容。练习曲每周只要布置一首到两首,有针对性地训练某个技巧点就好了。多加一些好听的让孩子感兴趣的乐曲,就算是没什么难度的普通乐曲也可以,这样孩子弹 ?2.自己喜欢的曲子就会又对学钢琴感兴趣了!? 每次练琴时,曲子的顺序安排很关键。先练基本的练习曲,爱弹的曲子放到最后练。因为爱弹的乐曲容易使孩子在练习时情绪高涨。而刚开始练琴兴趣也要比后来浓一些,这样先练的曲子效果自然好些,而后练的曲子越来越没兴趣弹,而且也感到疲劳,效果自然不如前面,长此以往孩子就会出现“偏科”的现象。?如果把不喜欢的乐曲放在前面练,把喜爱的乐曲留在最后,那孩子心里就会想练完这课就可以弹比这“好听的”曲子了,这样从始至终都能保证练琴时的兴趣和质量。而且在最喜爱的乐曲练到情绪最高涨时,就结束练琴,这样会使孩子愿意下次再练,可继续保持他的练琴兴趣。 3.弹琴时间一定要固定。这里包括固定时间点和每次练琴的长短。你可以把练琴时间安排在孩子喜欢的活动之前进行,比如孩子喜欢看的某个电视动画片,你把练琴时间安排在它开始的前一个小时并告诉他这一段时间里如能认真练琴,就可以看电视,即使孩子不情

愿练琴,可只要完成了‘任务’就可以看到自己喜欢的节目,一想到能看喜欢的电视节日,对于您所规定的练琴时间自然也不会有任何异议,哪怕练琴的量比平常多一点,往往也能够轻易地完成。这样练琴时间每天就可以轻易的达到一个小时了! 练琴时的16个好习惯 习惯一:弹琴前做些手指拉伸的动作。?动作以手指韧带的拉伸为主,不要太用力。目的类似于跑步、游泳前的准备运动,能使你更快地进入弹琴状态。冬天的话可以先抱会儿热水袋暖暖手。? 习惯二: 坚持每天弹一段哈农。?只要你开始弹哈农了,就坚持每天弹一段。这样,即使每天没太多时间碰琴,也能使你的水平不至于退得太厉害。对初学者来说,每天弹哈农更能保持稳定的进步。??习惯三: 由慢至快。 慢练的好处实在太多,往后会细谈。总之,慢练就是王道。??习惯四: 第一遍弹就重视谱子上的每一个符号。?许多人第一遍弹都会忽略谱上的表情记号,然后在弹熟后改,其实在第一遍弹时就注意表情符号 更能加深对曲子的理解。 ?习惯五: 弹琴时备一支铅笔。?很多时候谱子上并没有详细的指法、强弱指示,这时候,就需要用笔来把我们自己认为合适的指法、强弱等记号标上去。记住要用铅笔,不然写错很难改哦! ?习惯六:

(完整版)the的用法

定冠词the的用法: 定冠词the与指示代词this ,that同源,有“那(这)个”的意思,但较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西. (1)特指双方都明白的人或物 Take the medicine.把药吃了. (2)上文提到过的人或事 He bought a house.他买了幢房子. I've been to the house.我去过那幢房子. (3)指世界上独一无二的事物 the sun ,the sky ,the moon, the earth (4)单数名词连用表示一类事物 the dollar 美元 the fox 狐狸 或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人 the rich 富人 the living 生者 (5)用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词等前面 Where do you live?你住在哪? I live on the second floor.我住在二楼. That's the very thing I've been looking for.那正是我要找的东西. (6)与复数名词连用,指整个群体 They are the teachers of this school.(指全体教师) They are teachers of this school.(指部分教师) (7)表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前 She caught me by the arm.她抓住了我的手臂. (8)用在某些有普通名词构成的国家名称,机关团体,阶级等专有名词前 the People's Republic of China 中华人民共和国 the United States 美国 (9)用在表示乐器的名词前 She plays the piano.她会弹钢琴. (10)用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人 the Greens 格林一家人(或格林夫妇) (11)用在惯用语中 in the day, in the morning... the day before yesterday, the next morning... in the sky... in the dark... in the end... on the whole, by the way...

键盘钢琴谱

《童话》 LONOL LONOL LONO OOMML LONOL LQPPO LONOM MMOTS PPRRQQ QQNPOONO ONOR LSRQP PPRRQQ QQVUTUV VPOT TTSSS LSRQQRQ QRQ RQPO OQST TTSPPRQ OQST TTSPPRQRQPO PQMMOONO 《心语心愿》 TVUTSTQ TSTVUVUTUV VWXXXXW VUTUS TVUTST QSTXWVUV VUTTTTSSTQ SSTXWVUVV VUTTSUT 《会呼吸的痛》 STVTXXTW WWVUVWXWSV VUTUVRRRVVWVSSS SYXWXX STVTXXTW WWVUVWXWSVV VUTUVRRRVVWVSSS STUVVUVV 《欢乐颂》 J J K L L K J I H H I J J I I J J K L L K J I H H I J I H H I I J H I J K J H I J K J I H I E J J K L L K J I H H I J I H H 《小星星》 OOSSTTS RRQQPPO SSRRQQP SSRRQQP OOSSTTS RRQQPPO 《千千阙歌》 HHIJ LMONNNLJ IIIJK MOQPPNL HHIJ LMONNNLJ IIIJK MOQPPNL

MLMLMNNMN PPPPNOPQ QQPPPOQ NLM LMOPQQPQ QPOP OMM LMOP QQPQ QSTSQQ QQPPOPOM QQRQPOP QQ Q P POP OMOO 《婚礼进行曲》 HKKK HLJK HKNNMLKJKL HKKK HLJK HKMOMKILMK <雪绒花> JLP OLK JJJKLML JLP OLK JLLMNO O P LLNMLJLO MOPON L JLP OLK JLLMNO ONMLII JKLL NMLII JKLL 北京欢迎你 QSQPQPQ QPMOQP POMOPQSP QTSLPO POMOPQSP QTSSQ PQPOSTQ MQPPO QSVST STSQQSS QSTVWVSQPSQQ 《青花瓷》Flash键盘钢琴谱 LLJ IJF IJLJ I LLJ IJE IJLI H HIJLMLJ LJJI I HIH IHI IJLJ J LLJ IJF IJLJI LLJ IJE IJLIH HIJ LMLJ LJJII EJIIH

“the way+从句”结构的意义及用法

“theway+从句”结构的意义及用法 首先让我们来看下面这个句子: Read the followingpassageand talkabout it wi th your classmates.Try totell whatyou think of Tom and ofthe way the childrentreated him. 在这个句子中,the way是先行词,后面是省略了关系副词that或in which的定语从句。 下面我们将叙述“the way+从句”结构的用法。 1.the way之后,引导定语从句的关系词是that而不是how,因此,<<现代英语惯用法词典>>中所给出的下面两个句子是错误的:This is thewayhowithappened. This is the way how he always treats me. 2.在正式语体中,that可被in which所代替;在非正式语体中,that则往往省略。由此我们得到theway后接定语从句时的三种模式:1) the way+that-从句2)the way +in which-从句3) the way +从句 例如:The way(in which ,that) thesecomrade slookatproblems is wrong.这些同志看问题的方法

不对。 Theway(that ,in which)you’re doingit is comple tely crazy.你这么个干法,简直发疯。 Weadmired him for theway inwhich he facesdifficulties. Wallace and Darwingreed on the way inwhi ch different forms of life had begun.华莱士和达尔文对不同类型的生物是如何起源的持相同的观点。 This is the way(that) hedid it. I likedthe way(that) sheorganized the meeting. 3.theway(that)有时可以与how(作“如何”解)通用。例如: That’s the way(that) shespoke. = That’s how shespoke.

学钢琴的最佳年龄段

学钢琴的最佳年龄段 在学习钢琴的过程中,孩子可以学习乐谱,学习演奏技巧,可以学习许许多多的音乐知识。除此之外,还能学得三种能力,即注意力、协调力与自信力。 一般来说女孩4~5周岁,男孩5~6周岁可以开始学琴。当然每个孩子对音乐的理解和感悟能力还是有个体差异的。不同的孩子,其音乐天赋存在差异,父母不可一刀切。 学钢琴的好处 在学习钢琴的过程中,孩子可以学习乐谱,学习演奏技巧,可以学习许许多多的音乐知识。除此之外,还能学得三种能力,即注意力、协调力与自信力。 无论从哪个角度来说,这三种能力都是孩子健康成长所需要的。学习弹奏钢琴需要这三种能力,读书搞研究需要这三种能力,做学生、做教师、做演员、做领导、做科研人员,亦或做工人、农民、士兵……想要干得出类拔萃,也都必须具备这三种能力。 因而,不仅是教师,每位家长也应该了解到这一点,以期在辅导孩子练琴的过程中,抓住重点,收到良好的寓教于乐之效果。 钢琴学习要求孩子具有这三种能力。不能想象一个注意力不够集中、脑眼耳手脚协调能力弱、自信心不强的孩子会是钢琴弹奏水平较高的学生。其二,也正是钢琴学习对这三种能力的客

观“苛”求,使得每一个参与这一学习活动的孩子都有希望从中获得其原有基础与现有基础上的这三个“力”的改观和提高。这正是孩子练琴的益处之一。 注意力、协调力与自信力是怎样随孩子的钢琴学习不断深入而得到发展与提高的?对此,美国音乐教师鲍德温先生曾做过简明而透彻的分析: ①眼看单行乐谱,手弹单指旋律——训练孩子的一般注意力。 ②眼看单行乐谱,用右手弹奏两三个音符组成的旋律——训练孩子较强的注意力。 ③眼看两行乐谱,用左右手弹奏出各自不同的声部——训练孩子高度注意力与协调力。 ④眼看两行乐谱,用脑同时兼顾到双耳、双臂、十指、双腿及双脚的动作,以弹奏出乐曲——训练孩子高度精确的注意力、协调力,从而产生自信力。 学钢琴前的准备 考察宝宝 ●先天条件如果宝宝能以正确的姿势握住笔,说明孩子手的小肌肉能控制自如了,这就具备了学琴的最基本的条件了。只要是十指健全的孩子都可以学钢琴。 宝宝对音乐的敏感也很重要,比如他是不是喜欢听音乐?当电视机、音响里播放出好听的乐曲时,是否能不自觉跟着音乐的节奏手舞足蹈,并在听数遍后自己模仿着哼唱出来?他的音乐记忆力如何,是不是能在听过之后清楚、准确地记住不忘?还有,就是具备敏锐的听觉,对声音的高低、长短、强弱的微小差异,都有精细的辨别能力。 ●性格因素学琴需要心静。相比之下,那些做事认真、有耐心、情绪平和、专注的孩子,更适合学琴,学习效果也更好。即便是性格好动、比较浮躁的宝宝,其注意力最短也要能持续

way 用法

表示“方式”、“方法”,注意以下用法: 1.表示用某种方法或按某种方式,通常用介词in(此介词有时可省略)。如: Do it (in) your own way. 按你自己的方法做吧。 Please do not talk (in) that way. 请不要那样说。 2.表示做某事的方式或方法,其后可接不定式或of doing sth。 如: It’s the best way of studying [to study] English. 这是学习英语的最好方法。 There are different ways to do [of doing] it. 做这事有不同的办法。 3.其后通常可直接跟一个定语从句(不用任何引导词),也可跟由that 或in which 引导的定语从句,但是其后的从句不能由how 来引导。如: 我不喜欢他说话的态度。 正:I don’t like the way he spoke. 正:I don’t like the way that he spoke. 正:I don’t like the way in which he spoke. 误:I don’t like the way how he spoke. 4.注意以下各句the way 的用法: That’s the way (=how) he spoke. 那就是他说话的方式。 Nobody else loves you the way(=as) I do. 没有人像我这样爱你。 The way (=According as) you are studying now, you won’tmake much progress. 根据你现在学习情况来看,你不会有多大的进步。 2007年陕西省高考英语中有这样一道单项填空题: ——I think he is taking an active part insocial work. ——I agree with you_____. A、in a way B、on the way C、by the way D、in the way 此题答案选A。要想弄清为什么选A,而不选其他几项,则要弄清选项中含way的四个短语的不同意义和用法,下面我们就对此作一归纳和小结。 一、in a way的用法 表示:在一定程度上,从某方面说。如: In a way he was right.在某种程度上他是对的。注:in a way也可说成in one way。 二、on the way的用法 1、表示:即将来(去),就要来(去)。如: Spring is on the way.春天快到了。 I'd better be on my way soon.我最好还是快点儿走。 Radio forecasts said a sixth-grade wind was on the way.无线电预报说将有六级大风。 2、表示:在路上,在行进中。如: He stopped for breakfast on the way.他中途停下吃早点。 We had some good laughs on the way.我们在路上好好笑了一阵子。 3、表示:(婴儿)尚未出生。如: She has two children with another one on the way.她有两个孩子,现在还怀着一个。 She's got five children,and another one is on the way.她已经有5个孩子了,另一个又快生了。 三、by the way的用法

电脑键盘钢琴曲谱

《痴心绝对》 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 《童话》 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 《下一站天后》 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 《安静》 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 《天空之城》 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 ... 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 《好好恋爱》 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 《梦中地婚礼》 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 《美丽地神话》 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 《卡农》括号表示两个键一起按,表示停顿 () () () 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 ()() () () () () () 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 ()() () () ()() () () 个人收集整理勿做商业用途 ()() () () ()()()()()()()()()()()()()()()()() 个人收集整理勿做商业用途() () ()() () () ()个人收集整理勿做商业用途 《遇见》

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The way的用法及其含义(一)

The way的用法及其含义(一) 有这样一个句子:In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted. 1770年,这间琥珀屋按照她的要求完成了。 the way在句中的语法作用是什么?其意义如何?在阅读时,学生经常会碰到一些含有the way 的句子,如:No one knows the way he invented the machine. He did not do the experiment the way his teacher told him.等等。他们对the way 的用法和含义比较模糊。在这几个句子中,the way之后的部分都是定语从句。第一句的意思是,“没人知道他是怎样发明这台机器的。”the way的意思相当于how;第二句的意思是,“他没有按照老师说的那样做实验。”the way 的意思相当于as。在In 1770 the room was completed the way she wanted.这句话中,the way也是as的含义。随着现代英语的发展,the way的用法已越来越普遍了。下面,我们从the way的语法作用和意义等方面做一考查和分析: 一、the way作先行词,后接定语从句 以下3种表达都是正确的。例如:“我喜欢她笑的样子。” 1. the way+ in which +从句 I like the way in which she smiles. 2. the way+ that +从句 I like the way that she smiles. 3. the way + 从句(省略了in which或that) I like the way she smiles. 又如:“火灾如何发生的,有好几种说法。” 1. There were several theories about the way in which the fire started. 2. There were several theories about the way that the fire started.

钢琴手型要点

一、正确的手型要点: 钢琴弹奏的第—线工作是由手指来完成的。根据人手的生理形态和乐器制作的键盘结构形态,必然产生出适应弹奏需要的手指触键的态势。这就是我们通常所说的“手型”。 手型的基本要点是: 1、手指自然弯曲,同手掌一起构成一个半圆型,呈空握球状。 2、掌关节(通常叫第三关节)及所有手指关节都应凸起,应避免和纠正最易出现的手指第一关节和第三关节(指掌关节)塌陷呈凹状 3、手指应自然分开,原则上刚好一个指头对准一个琴键 4、整只手(从整个前臂到手)应以水平位置正摆在琴健上,并应使手指摆正,与琴键排列平行,大指应放在琴键上面 5、手指触键的基本位置应取在白键与黑键距离的约二分之一处。当触按黑键时,整只手应向黑键位置前挪,黑键应弹在键前端位置 二、错误手型的矫正方法: 何谓错误手型: 幼儿未经训练的柔弱小手在不具备弹奏需要的肌肉能力时、极易形成弹奏手型的不良姿势和不良动作习惯。对种种不良手型,不在此—一例举。概括起来,不良的手型主要表现在两个主要方面: 1、是指甲关节(通常称第—关节)和掌关节(通常叫第三关节)塌陷呈凹状,这个问题的主要危害是不能获得正确的发音、以后会影响到手指快速跑动; 2、是出于弱指的软弱使它们在站立和弹奏时会产生某些手指的多余动作和多余紧张。它可能表现为某些手指相互依靠、或某些手指伸直、卷曲等。这会直接影响正常弹奏,造成弹奏的不均匀、僵直生硬和能量的浪费。纠正不良手型主要依靠加强手指的独立支撑能力来解决。用—个极普通的例子可以说明:凡站立有困难或缺陷的人、走路的姿势必定不正常,出

怪相。手指也是一样,只有当肌肉能力发展到每个手指不依赖其他手指帮助而独立支撑,不牵动其他手指产生多余动作和多余紧张而独立动作时、基本手型就形成并真正得到了巩固。 如何矫正手型: 孩子弹琴时手型不标准并且很难纠正,或是纠正后又不能保持,几乎所有学琴的孩子都遇到过这个问题。关键是在初学钢琴的早期,就应注重正确手型的训练,如果让一些不良习惯养成便会根深蒂固,即使日后努力纠正获得成功,也难免今后还会在无意间再度恢复,给日后的继续学习和提高演奏技巧造成重大障碍,所以这也是最令家长头疼的问题。小孩子正处于成长发育期,指骨、肌肉、韧带还都十分柔嫩,缺乏力量,所以作为家长,切不可指望在短期内就能让孩子练好手型。必须要耐心地帮助孩子,不厌其繁地提醒孩子注意保持手型。 1、如果孩子掌关节凹陷,可把一只乒乓球放进丝袜中,绑在孩子手上〔球在手心部位〕再弹琴,这样坚持一段时间,会有一定的成效。 2、让孩子双手十指相对作抱球状,每对手指不停地做分开、相碰动作。〔但手指必须是自然弯曲状〕 3、也可将以上2种方法结合起来,将双手分开平放在桌面上,十个手指不停的轮番敲打

史上最全的Flash键盘钢琴谱

《童话》Flash键盘钢琴谱 LONOL LONOL LONO OOMMLLONOL LQPPO LONOM MMOTS PPRRQQ QQNPOONO ONOR LSRQPPPRRQQ QQVUTUV VPOT TTSSSLSRQQRQ QRQ RQPOOQST TTSPPRQ OQST TTSPPRQRQPO PQMMOONO 《星语心愿》Flash键盘钢琴谱 TVUTSTQ TSTVUVUTUV VWXXXXW VUTUS TVUTST QSTXWVUV VUTTTTSSTQ SSTXWVUVV VUTTSUT 《会呼吸的痛》Flash键盘钢琴谱 STVTXXTW WWVUVWXWSV VUTUVRRRVVWVSSS SYXWXX STVTXXTW WWVUVWXWSVV VUTUVRRRVVWVSSS STUVVUVV 《欢乐颂》Flash键盘钢琴谱 J J K L L K J I H H I J J I IJ J K L L K J I H H I J I H H I I J H I J K J H I J K J I H I E J J K L L K J I H H I J I H H

《小星星》Flash键盘钢琴谱 OOSSTTS RRQQPPO SSRRQQP SSRRQQPOOSSTTS RRQQPPO 《千千阙歌》Flash键盘钢琴谱 HHIJ LMONNNLJ IIIJK MOQPPNLHHIJ LMONNNLJ IIIJK MOQPPNLMLMLMNNMN PPPPNOPQQQPPPOQ NLMLMOPQQPQ QPOP OMM LMOP QQPQ QSTSQQQQPPOPOM QQRQPOP QQ Q PPOP OMOO 《婚礼进行曲》Flash键盘钢琴谱 HKKK HLJK HKNNMLKJKL HKKK HLJK HKMOMKILMKNMLII JKLL NMLII JKLL HKKK HLJK HKMOMKILMKILMKK 《青花瓷》Flash键盘钢琴谱 LLJ IJF IJLJ I LLJ IJE IJLI H HIJLMLJ LJJI I HIH IHI IJLJ J LLJ IJF IJLJI LLJ IJE IJLIH HIJ LMLJ LJJII EJIIH

钢琴弹奏要点(精)

钢琴弹奏要点(精) 首先,钢琴学习要求具有这三种能力。不能想象一个注意力不够集中、脑眼耳手脚协调能力弱、自信心不强的孩子会是钢琴弹奏水平较高的学生。其二,也正是钢琴学习对这三种能力的客观“苛”求,使得每一个参与这一学习活动的孩子都有希望从中获得其原有基础与现有基础上的这三个“力”的改观和提高。这正是孩子练琴的益处之一。 注意力、协调力与自信力是怎样随孩子的钢琴学习不断深入而得到发展与提高的?对此,美国音乐教师鲍德温先生曾做过简明而透彻的分析: ①眼看单行乐谱,手弹单指旋律——训练孩子的一般注意力。 ②眼看单行乐谱,用右手弹奏两三个音符组成的旋律——训练孩子较强的注意力。 ③眼看两行乐谱,用左右手弹奏出各自不同的声部——训练孩子高度注意力与协调力。 ④眼看两行乐谱,用脑同时兼顾到双耳、双臂、十指、双腿及双脚的动作,以弹奏出乐曲——训练孩子高度精确的注意力、协调力,从而产生自信力。 1:钢琴的基本练法 (1)钢琴的基本练法就是慢练。 慢练尤如"大镜",把乐曲中的一切细节都扩大了。慢练的最大优点是来得及根据视觉,听觉得到的反馈信息调整和修正缺点和毛病。

慢练的方法之一是用节拍器。即使在作品练习成熟之后,也不应忽视适当得慢速练习。 (2)有计划、有目的地学习: 冰冻三尺,非一日之寒。练钢琴需要的是持之以恒的态度。钢琴曲目繁多、演奏技法多样。初学者应制定一个远期学习目标和近期学习计划,从基础着手,循序渐进地学习,才能目的。 (3)以良好的心态学习钢琴: 学琴过程中,可能会遇到情绪起伏不的情况。应调节情绪,适当减轻学习难度,充分激发学琴兴趣、缓解学琴紧张感。 2:钢琴弹奏中自然重量的运用 关于自然重量的运用的要求是整只手臂的放松自如,从肩部的舒展下垂,到整个手臂的协调下垂,通过放松灵活的手腕调节,然后由手指把手臂重量传入键盘。 (1):认识体会到手臂的自然重量 以前倾上身的坐姿,把两只手臂完全放松地垂下去。此时手臂好像是从肩部自然垂挂下来的物体。在空气中随意摆动,晃动,而血都涌向了手掌,通向了指尖。体会到手臂的自然重量后,我们就要把这个自然重量用到弹琴上去。接下来手指就要发挥它的功能和作用了。 (2):手指要承受并支撑整只手臂的重量 手指的三个小关节微微凸起,尤其是处于手掌部位的指根关节(以下简称"掌关节")必须要作为一个力量的支持点。手臂的自然重量落下来,要求每一个手指都能支撑住。我们用断奏入门的方法练习:先

way 的用法

way 的用法 【语境展示】 1. Now I’ll show you how to do the experiment in a different way. 下面我来演示如何用一种不同的方法做这个实验。 2. The teacher had a strange way to make his classes lively and interesting. 这位老师有种奇怪的办法让他的课生动有趣。 3. Can you tell me the best way of working out this problem? 你能告诉我算出这道题的最好方法吗? 4. I don’t know the way (that / in which) he helped her out. 我不知道他用什么方法帮助她摆脱困境的。 5. The way (that / which) he talked about to solve the problem was difficult to understand. 他所谈到的解决这个问题的方法难以理解。 6. I don’t like the way that / which is being widely used for saving water. 我不喜欢这种正在被广泛使用的节水方法。 7. They did not do it the way we do now. 他们以前的做法和我们现在不一样。 【归纳总结】 ●way作“方法,方式”讲时,如表示“以……方式”,前面常加介词in。如例1; ●way作“方法,方式”讲时,其后可接不定式to do sth.,也可接of doing sth. 作定语,表示做某事的方法。如例2,例3;

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