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北航 财务管理 考试整理

北航 财务管理 考试整理
北航 财务管理 考试整理

重点

Ch 1: The Role of Financial Management

1. Financial management:concerned with the acquisition, financing and management of assets with some overall goal in mind.

2. The decision function of financing management can be broken down into 3 major areas:the investment decision, financing decision, and asset management decision.

3. The goal of the firm: Maximize the wealth of the firm’s present owners.

4. Agent problems: The separation of ownership and control in the modern corporation results in potential conflicts between owners and managers.

Solutions: (1) Give appropriate incentives---must be directly related to how close management decisions come to the interests of the shareholders.

(2) Monitor the agents---necessarily involves costs.

5. Controller and Treasurer: see h.w.11.

Homework Questions:

2. Contrast the objective of maximizing earnings with that of maximizing wealth.

Maximizing earnings is a nonfunctional objective for the following reasons:

a. Earnings is a time vector. Unless one time vector of earnings clearly dominates all other time vectors, it is impossible to select the vector that will maximize earnings.

b. Each time vector of earning possesses a risk characteristi

c. Maximizing expected earnings ignores the risk parameter.

c. Earnings can be increased by selling stock and buying treasury bills. Earnings will continue to increase since stock does not require out-of-pocket costs.

d. The impact of dividend policies is ignored. If all earnings are retained, future earnings are increased. However, stock prices may decrease as a result of adverse reaction to the absence of dividends.

Maximizing wealth takes into account earnings, the timing and risk of these earnings, and the dividend policy of the firm.

6. What are the 3 major functions of the financial manager and how are they related?

The financial manager is involved in the acquisition, financing, and management of assets. These three functional areas are all interrelated (e.g., a decision to acquire an asset necessitates the financing and management of that asset, whereas financing and management costs affect the decision to invest).

11. Compare and contrast the roles.

The controller's responsibilities are primarily accounting in nature. Cost accounting, as well as budgets and forecasts, would be for internal consumption. External financial reporting would be provided to the IRS, the SEC, and the stockholders.

The treasurer's responsibilities fall into the decision areas most commonly associated with financial management: investment (capital budgeting, pension management), financing (commercial banking and investment banking relationships, investor relations, dividend disbursement), and asset management (cash management, credit management).

Ch2: The Business, Tax, and Financial Environments

1. Business Environment

Sole Proprietorship: A business form for which there is one owner. This single owner has unlimited liability for all debts of the firm.

(1) Oldest form of business organization.

(2) Business income is accounted for on your personal income tax form .

Partnership -- A business form in which two or more individuals act as owners. (1) Business income is accounted for on each partner ’s personal income tax form .

(2) a. General Partnership: all partners have unlimited liability and are liable for all obligations of the partnership. b. Limited Partnership: limited partners have liability limited to their capital contribution (investors only). At least one general partner is required and all general partners have unlimited liability.

Corporation: A business form legally separate from its owners. (1) An artificial entity that can own assets and incur liabilities.

(2) Business income is accounted for on the income tax form of the corporation .

Limited

Liability Companies: A business form that provides its owners (called “members”) with corporate -style limited personal liability and the federal-tax treatment of a partnership.

(1) Business income is accounted for on each “member ’s ” individual income tax form .

(2) Generally, an LLC will possess only the first two of the following four standard corporation characteristics a. Limited liability b. Centralized management c. Unlimited life d. Transfer of ownership without other owners ’ prior consent

RISK

EXPECTED RETURN

2. Tex environment

a special tax which equals 20% of alternative minimum taxable income (generally not equal to taxable income). Corporations pay the maximum of AMT or regular tax liability.

reporting purposes, tax purposes, or both. (1) straight-line depreciation (2) accelerated depreciation

(3) MACRS---Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System

a. Assets are depreciated based on one of eight different property classes.

b. Generally, the half-year convention is used.

c. Depreciation in any particular year is the maximum of DDB or straight-line. A switch in depreciation methods is made from DDB to SL during the life of the asset. 3.Interest Deductibility: debt financing has a tax advantage

(1) Interest Expense is the interest paid on outstanding debt and is tax deductible .

(2) Cash Dividend is the cash distribution of earnings to shareholders and is not a tax deductible expense. (3)The after-tax cost of debt is: (Interest Expense) X ( 1 - Tax Rate)

Carryback and Carryforward: Corporations that sustain a net operating loss can carry that loss back (Carryback ) 2 years and forward (Carryforward ) 20 years to offset operating gains in those years. 4. Risk-Expected Return Profile

5. What are the principles the MARCS is based on?

Accelerated depreciation is used up to the point it is advantageous to switch to straight line depreciation. A one-half year convention is followed in the first year, which reduces the cost recovery in that year from what would

otherwise be the case.

Additionally, a one-half year convention is followed in the year following the asset class. This pushes out the depreciation schedule, which is disadvantageous from a present value standpoint. The double declining balance method is used for the first four asset classes, 3, 5, 7 and 10 years. The asset category determines the project's depreciable life.

15. What are the factors give rise to different interest or yield being observed for different types of debt instruments?

Differences in maturity, default risk, marketability, taxability, and option features affect yields on financial instruments. In general, the longer the maturity, the greater the default risk, the lower the marketability and the more the return is subject to ordinary income taxation as opposed to capital gains taxation or no taxation, the higher the yield on the instrument. If the investor receives an option (e.g. a conversion feature or warrant), the yield should be lower than otherwise. Conversely, if the firm issuing the security receives an option, such as a call feature, the investor must be compensated with a higher yield.

Another factor -- one not taken up in this chapter -- is the coupon rate. The lower the coupon rate the greater

CH3 Time Value of Money

1.Simple Interest: Interest paid (earned) on only the original amount, or principal, borrowed (lent).

(1) FVn = P0[1+(i)(n)]

(2) PV o = FVn/[(1+(i)(n)]

https://www.wendangku.net/doc/fc1228464.html,pound Interest: Interest paid (earned) on any previous interest earned, as well as on the principal

borrowed (lent).

(1)Single amount

a. FVn = P0 (1+i)^n

b. PVo = FVn[1/(1+i)^n]

(2) Annuities

①Ordinary Annuity: a series of equal payments or receipts occurring over a specified number of periods.

a. FV An = R﹛[(1+i)^n -1]/i﹜

b. PV An = R(﹛1-[1/(1+i)^n ]﹜/i)

②Perpetuity: an ordinary annuity whose payments or receipts continue forever.

a. PV A∞= R(﹛1-[1/(1+i)^∞]﹜/i)≈R(1/i)

③Annuity due: a series of equal payments occurring at the beginning of each period.

a. FV An = R﹛[(1+i)^n -1]/i﹜(1+i)

b. PV An = R(﹛1-[1/(1+i)^n ]﹜/i)(1+i)m

④Deferred Annuity

3.Effective interest rate: The actual rate f interest earned after adjusting the nominal rate.

(1)Nominal interest rate: interest rate of a year.

(2)Actual interest rate:[1+(i/m)]^m -1 (when compounded m times per year )

4.Continuous Compounding: interest is compounded continuously.

a. FVn = PV o(1+i/m)^(mn) = PVo (e)^(in)

b. PV o = FVn/(e)^(in)

5.Amortizing a loan

一笔贷款,每年归还R元,分n期还完,利率为i,求第m期归还的本金数。

(1) ①还到第m期,未还的本金数:PV o = R(﹛1-[1/(1+i)^(n-m) ]﹜/i)

②还到第m-1期,未还的本金数:PV o = R(﹛1-[1/(1+i)^(n-m+1) ]﹜/i)

第m期未还的本金数= ②- ①

(2) 第m期还的本金数Xm=(1+i) Xm-1

由等比数列得:Xm = X1 (1+i)^m-1

n期共还本金:X1 (1-i^n)/(1-i)

(1 + k d )1 (1 + k d )2

(1 + k d )∞ V = + + ... +

I I = I / kd [Reduced Form ]

I (1 + k d )

1

(1 + k d )

2

(1 + k d )

ν

V =

+

+ ... +

I

I + MV

= I (PVIFA kd, n) + MV (PVIF kd, n)

I

(1 + k e )

1

(1 + k e

)2 (1 + k e

)∞

V =

+ + ... + Div 1

Div ∞

Div 2

(1 + k e

)1 (1 + k e

)2 (1 + k e

)∞

V = + + ... + D 0(1+g ) D 0(1+g )∞

D 0(1+g )2 = D1 / (ke - g) CH4 the Valuation of Long-Term Securities

1. Distinctions Among Valuation Concepts

(1) Liquidation value represents the amount of money that could be realized if an asset or group of assets is sold separately from its operating organization.

(2) Going-concern value represents the amount a firm could be sold for as a continuing operating business. (3) Book value represents either

a. an asset : the accounting value of an asset -- the asset ’s cost minus its accumulated depreciation.

b. a firm : total assets minus liabilities and preferred stock as listed on the balance sheet. (4) Market value represents the market price at which an asset trades.

(5) Intrinsic value represents the price a security “ought to have ” based on all factors bearing on valuation. 2. Bond V aluation

a. Maturity value (MV) (or face value): the stated value of an asset. In the case of a U.S. bond, the face value is usually $1,000.

b. Coupon rate: the stated rate of interest on a bond. The annual interest payment divided by the bond ’s face value.

(1) Perpetual bond ( the British Consol ): a bond that never matures. It has an infinite life.

(2) Non-zero coupon bond: a coupon paying bond with a finite life.

(3) Semiannual Compounding: Most bonds in the U.S. pay interest twice a year (1/2 of the annual coupon). Adjustments needed: a. Divide kd by 2 b. Multiply n by 2 c. Divide I by 2

3. Preferred Stock (Valuation): a type of stock that promises a (usually) fixed dividend, but at the discretion of

the board of directors.

V = Dp (stated annual dividend per share of PS) / kp (appropriate discount rate)

Preferred Stock has preference over common stock in the payment of dividends and claims on assets. 4. Common stock (Valuation): represents a residual ownership position in the corporation. (1) Pro rata share of future earnings after all other obligations of the firm (if any remain). (2) Dividends may be paid out of the pro rata share of earnings.

(3) Cash flows that a shareholder will receive when owning shares of common stock are:

a. Future dividends

b. Future sale of the common stock shares

Div: Cash Dividend at time t ke: Equity investor ’s required return

5. Dividend Growth Pattern------Constant Growth: assumes that dividends will grow forever at the rate g.

P 0 =

n t=1

(1 + k d )t

I (1 + k d )n n

+

M 6. Rates of Return (or Yields)

(1) Steps to calculate the rate of return (or Yield).

a. Determine the expected cash flows.

b. Replace the intrinsic value (V) with the market price (P0).

c. Solve for the market required rate of return that equates the discounted cash flows to the market price. (2) Bond Yield-to-Maturity (YTM): the expected rate of return on a bond if bought at its current market price and held to maturity.

(3) Bond Price - Yield Relationship

a. Discount Bond -- The market required rate of return exceeds the coupon rate (Par > P0 ).

b. Premium Bond -- The coupon rate exceeds the market required rate of return (P0 > Par).

c. Par Bond -- The coupon rate equals the market required rate of return (P0 = Par).

d. Seesaw – Interest rates and bond prices move in opposite directions.

e. Price fluctuation – for a given change in market required return, the longer a bond ’s maturity, the greater amount its price will change.

f. Price volatility – bond price volatility is inversely related to coupon rate. (4) Yield on Preferred Stock: Determine the yield for preferred stock with an infinite life.

kp (market required rate of return) = Dp (stated annual dividend per share of PS) / Po (current market price) (5) Yield on Common Stock: Assume the constant growth model is appropriate.

ke (market determined yield on CS) = ( D 1 / P 0 ) (expected dividend yield)+ g (expected capital gains)

7. Nominal annual rate of return = i * m Effective annual rate of return = (1 + i / m )m - 1

i: interest paid once, m: interests are paid m times in a year k d = YTM

CH5 Risk and Return

1. Using Probability Distributions to Measure Risk

(1) Expected return (Discrete Distribution) : R = ∑( Ri )( Pi )

R is the expected return for the asset. Ri is the return for the ith possibility. Pi is the probability of that return occurring. n is the total number of possibilities. (2) Standard Deviation (Risk Measure)

a. Standard Deviation is a statistical measure of the

σ = ∑ ( Ri - R )2 ( Pi ) variability of a distribution around its mean.

b. It is the square root of variance.

c. This is for a discrete distribution.

(3) Coefficient of Variation: The ratio of the standard deviation of a distribution to the mean of that distribution. It is a measure of RELATIVE risk.

CV: a measure of risk “per unit of expected return ” = σ / R

2. Risk Attitudes

Certainty Equivalent (CE ): the amount of cash someone would require with certainty at a point in time to make the individual indifferent between that certain amount and an amount expected to be received with risk at the same point in time.

(1) Certainty equivalent > Expected value Risk Preference (2) Certainty equivalent = Expected value Risk Indifference

(3) Certainty equivalent < Expected value Risk Aversion (Most individuals are)

3. Portfolio Expected Return: Rp = ∑ ( Wj )( Rj )

Rp: the expected return for the portfolio, Rj : the expected return of the jth asset. Wj : the weight (investment proportion) for the jth asset. m: the total number of assets.

4. Systematic Risk: the variability of return on stocks or portfolios associated with changes in return on the market as a whole. Factors such as changes in nation ’s economy, tax reform by the Congress, or a change in the world situation.

Unsystematic Risk: the variability of return on stocks or portfolios not explained by general market movements. It is avoidable through diversification. Factors unique to a particular company or industry. For example, a death of a key executive or loss of a governmental defense contract.

5. Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM): A model that describes the relationship between risk and expected (required) return ; in this model, a security ’s expected (required) return is the risk-free rate plus a premium based on the systematic risk of the security. n i=1

i=1

n j=1

m NUMBER OF SECURITIES IN THE

PORTFOLIO

STDARD DEVIATION OF PORTFOLIO RETURN

M = 1.0

Systematic Risk (Beta)

R

f

R R i s k P r e m i u m R i s k -f r e e R e t u r n

6. Beta: An index of systematic risk individual security ’s returns and returns on the market portfolio).

(1) It measures the sensitivity of a stock ’s returns to changes in returns on the market portfolio. (2) The beta for a portfolio is simply a weighted average of the individual stock betas in the portfolio. (3) Beta = Rise / Run

(4) Different Betas: a. Beta > 1 (aggressive) b. Beta = 1 (average) c. Beta < 1 (defensive)

7. Security Market Line

R j (required rate of return for stock j) = R f (risk-free rate of return) + βj [R m (expected return) - R f ]

R j = R f +βj (R m - R f )

8. The Intrinsic Value for perpetual dividend growth model V= D 1 / (k e – g)

(1) Overpriced: under the Security Market Line (2) underpriced: over the Security Market Line 9. Three forms of Market Efficiency

(1) Weak-form efficiency: Current price fully reflect the historical sequence of prices. (2) Semistrong- form efficiency: Current price fully reflect all publicly available information. (3) Strong- form efficiency: Current price fully reflect all information, both public and private. R e q u i r e d R e t u r n

Ch8 Overview of Working Capital Management

1. Net Working Capital: Current Assets - Current Liabilities

2. Gross Working Capital: The firm ’s investment in current assets.(Like cash and marketable securities,

receivables, and inventory) 3. Optimal amount of current asset:

Return on Investment (ROI)= Net Profit / Total Assets

Total Assets= Current (Cash + Receivables + Inventory) + Fixed Assets

Policy A Policy B Policy C

Liquidity: High Average Low Profitability: Low Average High Risk: Low Average High (1) Profitability varies inversely with liquidity. (2) Profitability moves together with risk. (3) Factors cost more risk:

a. Decreasing cash reduces the firm ’s ability to meet its financial obligations.

b. Stricter credit policies reduce receivables and possibly lose sales and customers.

c. Lower inventory levels increase stock outs and lost sales. 4. Working capital can be classified according to:

(1) Components: Cash, marketable securities, receivables, and inventory (2) Time: Permanent or Temporary

a. Permanent working capital: The amount of current assets required to meet a firm ’s long-term minimum needs.

b. Temporary working capital: The amount of current assets that varies with seasonal requirements. 5. Financing current assets

(1) Hedging (or Maturity Matching) Approach a. A method of financing where each asset would be offset with a financing instrument of the same approximate maturity.

b. Fixed assets and

the non-seasonal portion of current assets are financed with long-term debt and equity.

c. Seasonal needs are financed with short-term loans.

(2) Risks & Costs Trade-Off (Conservative Approach)

Firm can reduce risks associated with short-term borrowing by using a larger proportion of long-term financing. 0 25,000

A S S E T L E

TIME

Long-Term Financing Benefits: Long-Term Financing Risks: a. Less worry in refinancing short-term obligations. a. Borrowing b. Less uncertainty regarding future interest costs b. Borrowing at a higher overall cost (usually)

Result: Manager accepts less expected profits in exchange for taking less risk.

(3) Risks vs. Costs Trade-Off (Aggressive Approach) Firm increases risks associated with short-term borrowing by using a larger proportion of short-term financing.

Short-Term Financing Benefits Short-Term Financing Risks

a. Financing long-term needs with a lower interest a. Refinancing short-term obligations in the future cost than short-term debt

b. Uncertain future interest costs b. Borrowing only what is necessary

Result: Manager accepts greater expected profits in exchange for taking greater risk.

(4) Combining Liability Structure and Current Asset Decisions

a. The level of current assets and the method of financing those assets are interdependent .

b. A conservative policy of “high ” levels of current assets allows a more aggressive method of financing current assets.

c. A conservative method of financing (all-equity) allows an aggressive policy of “low” levels of current assets. Financing Maturity Asset Maturit SHORT-TERM LONG-TERM

Low

Risk-Profitabilit Moderate Risk-Profitabilit Moderate Risk-Profitabilit

High

Risk-Profitabilit

SHORT-TERM (T e m p o r a r y ) LONG-TERM (P e r m a n e n t )

Ch12 Capital Budgeting and Estimating Cash Flows

1. Capital Budgeting: The process of identifying, analyzing, and selecting investment projects whose returns (cash flows) are expected to extend beyond one year.

a. Generate investment proposals consistent with the firm’s strategic objectives.

b. Estimate after-tax incremental operating cash flows for the investment projects.

c. Evaluate project incremental cash flows.

d. Select projects based on a value-maximizing acceptance criterion.

e. Reevaluate implemented investment projects continually and perform postaudits for completed projects.

2. Classification of Investment Project Proposals

a. New products or expansion of existing products

b. Replacement of existing equipment or buildings

3. Estimating Project “After-Tax Incremental Cash Flows”

(1) Basic characteristics of relevant project flows

a. Cash (not accounting income) flows

b. Operating (not financing) flows

c. After-tax flows

d. Incremental flows

(2) Principles that must be adhered to in the estimation

a. Ignore sunk costs

b. Include opportunity costs

c. Include project-driven changes in working capital net of spontaneous changes in current liabilities

d. Include effects of inflation

4. Calculation of the Incremental Cash Flows: △OC=(△R+△OC’-△D)(1+t)+△D

△OC = Operating cash flow; △R = revenue; △OC’= Operating cost △D = Depreciation; t = tax rate

(1) Initial Cash Outflow

a) Cost of “new”assets

b) + Capitalized expenditures

c) + (-) Increased (decreased) NWC

d) - Net proceeds from sale of “old”asset(s) if replacement

e) + (-) Taxes (savings) due to the sale of “old”asset(s) if replacement

f) = Initial cash outflow

(2) Incremental Cash Flows

a) Net increase (decrease) in operating revenue less (plus) any net increase (decrease) in

operating expenses, excluding depreciation.

b) - (+) Net increase (decrease) in tax depreciation

c) = Net change in income before taxes

d) - (+) Net increase (decrease) in taxes

f) + (-) Net increase (decrease) in tax depreciation charges

g) = Incremental net cash flow for period

(3)Terminal-Year Incremental Cash Flows

a) Calculate the incremental net cash flow for the terminal period

b) + (-) Salvage value (disposal/reclamation costs) of any sold or disposed assets

c) - (+) Taxes (tax savings) due to asset sale or disposal of “new”assets

d) + (-) Decreased (increased) level of “net” working capital

e) = Terminal year incremental net cash flow

Homework Questions:

1. When relevant project cash flows are examined, why is an increase in tax depreciation at first deducted and then later added back in determining incremental cash flow for a period?

Tax depreciation is a noncash charge against operating income that lowers taxable income. So we need to deduct it as we determine the incremental effect that the project has on taxable income. However, we ultimately add it back to the net change in income after taxes so as not to understate the project's effect on cash flow.

3. In determining the expected cash flows from a new investment project, why should past sunk cost be ignored in the estimates?

Sunk costs must be ignored because they do not affect incremental cash flows. With capital budgeting, one is concerned with the net cash flows that occur presently and in the future. The occurrence of past costs should not enter into the decision process.

(1+IRR )

(1+IRR )2 (1+IRR )

+ . . . +

+ ICO =

CF 1 CF 2 CF n CF 1 CF 2 CF n

(1+k )1 (1+k )2 (1+k )n + . . . + + - I C O NPV = CF 1

CF 2 CF n

(1+k)1 (1+k)2 (1+k)

n

+ . . . + + I C O =

1 + [ N P V / I C O ]

PI =

CH13 Capital Budgeting Techniques

1. Project Evaluation: Alternative Methods

(1) Payback period (PBP): The period of time required for the cumulative expected cash flows from an investment

project to equal the initial cash outflow. PBP = a + ( b - c ) / d

Acceptance Criterion: If the PBP is less than acceptable payback period, the proposal is accepted.

(2) Internal Rate of Return (IRR): The discount rate that equates the present value of the future net cash flows from an investment project with the project ’s initial cash outflow.

ICO=Initial Cash outflow.

CFn=the present value of the expected net cash flows.

(3) Net Present Value (NPV): T he present value of an investment project ’s net cash flows minus the project ’s initial cash outflow.

Acceptance Criterion: If an investment project ’s NPV is zero or more, the project is accepted.

(4) Profitability Index (PI): The ratio of the present value of a project ’s future net cash flows to the project ’s initial cash outflow.

Acceptance Criterion: As long as the PI is 1.00 or greater, the investment proposal is acceptable.

0 1 2 3 4 5 (a) -40 K (-b ) 10 K 12 K 15 K 10 K (d) 7K

10 K 22 K 37 K (c) 47 K 54 K

2. Other Project Relationships

(1) Independent project: A project whose acceptance (or rejection) does not prevent the acceptance of other projects

under consideration.

(2) Dependent (or contingent) project: A project whose acceptance depends on the acceptance of one or more other

projects.

(3) Mutually Exclusive project: A project whose acceptance precludes the acceptance of one or more alternative

projects.

3. Potential Difficulties: Ranking Problem

(1) Scale of Investment: Costs of projects differ.

(2) Cash-flow Pattern: Timing of cash flow differs. (E.g. project A↗; project B↘)

(3) Project Life: Projects have unequal useful lives.

Result: We can always use NPV to determine which project is better when exclusive projects rank differently.

4. Capital Rationing: occurs when a constraint (or budget ceiling) is placed on the total size of capital expenditures during a particular period.

Select projects by descending order of PI, because PI generates the greatest increase in shareholder wealth when a limited capital budget exists for a single period.

Homework Questions:

4. Contrast the IRR method and the NPV method of selection, why might these two discounted cash flow techniques lead to conflicts in project ranking?

The internal rate of return (IRR) is the discount rate that makes the present value of the benefits generated by a project equal to the investment. The net present value (NPV) is the difference between the present value of the benefits discounted at the required return (or cost of capital) and the investment.

One essential difference between the two approaches is the implied rate of return on the reinvestment of the cash flows. The IRR assumes that the cash flows are reinvested at the IRR while the NPV assumes reinvestment at the required rate of return.

Under conditions of capital rationing, or mutually exclusive projects, and of sharply rising cost of capital, this difference is very important since only one assumption is correct. In addition, problems in rankings can occur because of differences in the scale of investment and project life.

5. Why is PBP unsound but popular in business as a criterion for assigning priorities to investment projects?

The payback period is unsound because the time value of money is ignored. Also, the cash flows after payback are ignored. Finally, the payback period of, say, three years may or may not be adequate to satisfy a cost of capital of, say, 10 percent.

It is a popular profitability measure because of its simplicity and practicality. In a limited sense, the payback is a measure of risk. It emphasizes short-term cash flows that are important for small growing concerns. It emphasizes those cash flows that can be predicted with greatest accuracy. When used in conjunction with the NPV method, the payback can improve the decision-making process.

Ch15 Required Returns and the Cost of Capital

1. Cost of Capital:The required rate of return on the various types of financing. The overall cost of capital is a weighted average of the individual required rates of return (costs).

2. Cost of Debt: The required rate of return on investment of the lenders of a company.

ki = kd ( 1 - t )

ki = after-tax cost of debt; kd = yield to maturity; t = tex rate

3. Cost of Preferred Stock: The required rate of return on investment of the preferred shareholders of the company.

kp= Dp / Po

Dp = stated annual dividend; Po = current market price of the preferred stock

4. Cost of Equity Approaches

(1) Dividend Discount Model (DDM): The cost of equity capital, ke, is the discount rate that equates the present value of all expected future dividends with the current market price of the stock.

The constant dividend growth assumption reduces the model to (assume that dividends will grow at the constant rate “g” forever):

ke = ( D1 / P0 ) + g

(2) Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM): The cost of equity capital, ke, is equated to the required rate of return in market equilibrium.

The risk-return relationship is described by the Security Market Line (SML).

ke = Rj = Rf + (Rm - Rf)βj

(3) Before-Tax Cost of Debt Plus Risk Premium

The cost of equity capital, ke, is the sum of the before-tax cost of debt and a risk premium in expected return for common stock over debt. (Risk premium is not the same as CAPM risk premium)

ke = kd + Risk Premium

5. Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC)

Cost of Capital = ∑kx(Wx)

kx = after-tax cost of the x th method of financing; Wx is the weight given to that method of financing

CH16 Operating and Financial Leverage

1. Operating Leverage: The use of fixed operating costs by the firm. One potential “effect ” caused by the presence of operating leverage is that a change in the volume of sales results in a “more than proportional” change in operating profit (or loss).

(1) Break-Even Point: The sales volume required so that total revenues and total costs are equal; may be in units or in sales dollars.

EBIT = P(Q) - V(Q) – FC = Q(P - V) – FC

P = Price per unit V = Variable costs per unit FC = Fixed costs Q = Quantity (units) produced and sold Breakeven occurs when EBIT = 0

Q BE = FC / (P - V)

Sales Break Even Point: SBE = FC + (VCBE) = FC + (QBE )(V) = FC / [1 - (VC / S) ]

(2) Degree of Operating Leverage (DOL): The percentage change in a firm ’s operating profit (EBIT) resulting from a 1 percent change in output (sales).

DOL at Q units of output (or sales) = Percentage change in operating profit (EBIT)

Percentage change in output (or sales) DOL at Q units of output = Q(P-V) / Q(P-V)-FC = Q / (Q-Q BE )

DOL at S dollars of sales = S-VC / S-VC-FC = EBIT+FC / EBIT 2. Financial Leverage: The use of fixed financing costs by the firm. (the British expression is gearing.) a. Financial leverage is acquired by choice.

b. Used as a means of increasing the return to common shareholders.

(1) EBIT-EPS Break-Even Analysis -- Analysis of the effect of financing alternatives on earnings per share. The break-even point (Indifference point) is the EBIT level where EPS is the same for two (or more) alternatives.

EPS = (EBIT - I) (1 - t) - PD / NS

I: annual interest paid PD: annual preferred dividend paid t: corporate tax rate NS: Number of shares

a. There is no indifference point between the debt and preferred stock alternatives.

b. indifference point: EPS 1 = EPS 2

c. Preferred stock dividend is paid at an after- tax basis, so it is at the right side of debt line.

d. Indifference point between preferred stock and common stock financing

a. The greater the level of expected EBIT above the indifference point and lower the probability of downside fluctuation, the stronger the case that can be made for the use of debt financing.

b . L o w e r r i s k : Only a small probability that EPS will be less if the debt alternative is chosen. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

1 2 3 4 5 6

s )

0 100 200 300 400 E a r n i n g s p e r S h a r e ($)

P r o b a b i l i t y

o f O c c u r r e n c e

f o r t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n )

(3) Degree of Financial Leverage: The percentage change in a firm’s earnings per share (EPS) resulting from a 1 percent change in operating profit.

DFL at EBIT of X dollars = Percentage change in earnings per share (EPS)

Percentage change in operating profit (EBIT)

DFL EBIT of $X= EBIT

EBIT - I - [ PD / (1 - t) ]

EBIT: Earnings before interest and taxes I: Interest PD: Preferred dividends t: Corporate tax rate

3. Degree of Total Leverage: The percentage change in a firm’s earnings per share (EPS) resulting from a 1 percent change in output (sales).

DTL at Q units (or S dollars) of output (or sales) = Percentage change in earnings per share (EPS)

Percentage change in output (or sales)

DTL Q units (or S dollars) = ( DOL Q units (or S dollars) x ( DFL EBIT of X dollars )

DTL S dollars of sales = EBIT + FC / EBIT - I - [ PD / (1 - t) ]

DTL Q units = Q (P - V) / Q (P - V) - FC - I - [ PD / (1 - t) ]

4. Coverage Ratios: Ratios that relate the financial charged of a firm to its ability of service, or cover them.

(1) Interest Coverage: Indicates a firm’s ability to cover interest charges.

Interest Coverage ratio = EBIT

(or times interest earned) Interest expenses

A ratio value equal to 1 indicates that earnings are just sufficient to cover interest charges.

(2) Debt-service Coverage: Indicates a firm’s ability to cover interest expenses and principal payments.

Debt-service Coverage = EBIT

{ Interest expenses + [Principal payments / (1-t) ] }

Homework Questions:

8. Discuss the similarities and differences between financial leverage and operating leverage.

Both operating and financial leverage involve the use of fixed costs. The former is due to fixed operating costs associated with the production of goods or services, while the latter is due to the existence of fixed financing costs. Both types of leverage affect the level and variability of the firm's after-tax earnings and, hence, the firm's overall risk and return.

However, while financial leverage is acquired by choice, operating leverage often is not. Operating leverage is often dictated by the physical requirements of the firm's operations.

0 .25 .50 .75 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0

Financial Leverage (B / S)

.25 .20

.15 .10 .05 0

k e

= 16.25% a n d 17.5% r e s p e c t i v e l y

k i (Y i e l d o n d e b t )

k o (C a p i t a l i z a t i o n r a t e )

k e (R e q u i r e d r e t u r n o n e q u i t y )

Capital Costs (%)

Financial Leverage (B / S)

.1.1CH17 Capital Structure Determination

1. Capital Structure: The mix (or proportion) of a firm ’s permanent long-term financing represented by debt, preferred stock, and common stock equity.

2. Net Operating Income Approach: A theory of capital structure in which the weighted average cost of capital and the total value of the firm remain constant as financial leverage is changed. (1) Critical assumption is ko remains constant.

(2) An increase in cheaper debt funds is exactly offset by an increase in the required rate of return on equity.

(3) As long as ki is constant, ke is a linear function of the debt-to-equity ratio. (4) There is no one optimal capital structure. (The capital structure that minimizes the firm ’s cost of capital and thereby maximizes the value of the firm.)

3. Traditional Approach: A theory of capital structure in which there exists an optimal capital structure and where management can increase the total value of the firm through the judicious use of financial leverage. a. Initially, low-cost debt is not rising and

replaces more

expensive equity financing and

ko declines.

b. Then, increasing financial leverage and the associated increase in ke more than offsets the benefits of lower cost debt financing.

(2) This is a point where the firm ’s total value

will be the largest (discounting at ko).

(3) There is one optimal capital structure where

ko is at its lowest point.

4. Equity with Bankruptcy and Agency Cost

Value of levered firm= Value of firm if unlevered + Present value of tax-shield benefits of debt

- Present value of bankruptcy and agency costs

As financial leverage increases, tax-shield benefits increase as do bankruptcy and agency costs. R f

r e m i u m f o r n a n c i a l r i s k r e m i u m f o r u s i n e s s r i s k

R i s k -f r e e

CH18 Dividend Policy

1. Irrelevance of Dividends

(1) Current dividends versus retention of earnings

a. M&M contend that the effect of dividend payments on shareholder wealth is exactly offset by other means of financing.

b. The dividend plus the “new”stock price after dilution exactly equals the stock price prior to the dividend distribution.

(2) Conservation of value

a. M&M and the total-value principle ensures that the sum of market value plus current dividends of two firms identical in all respects other than dividend-payout ratios will be the same.

b. Investors can “create”any dividend policy they desire by selling shares when the dividend payout is too low or buying shares when the dividend payout is excessive.

2. Relevance of Dividends

(1) Preference for dividends

a. Uncertainty surrounding future company profitability leads certain investors to prefer the certainty of current dividends.

b. Investors prefer “large”dividends.

c. Investors do not like to manufacture “homemade” dividends, but prefer the company to distribute them directly.

(2) Taxes on the investor

a. Capital gains taxes are deferred until the actual sale of stock. This creates a timing option.

b. Capital gains are preferred to dividends, everything else equal. Thus, high dividend-yielding stocks should sell at a discount to generate a higher before-tax rate of return.

c. Certain institutional investors pay no tax.

d. Corporations can typically exclude 70% of dividend income from taxation. Thus, corporations generally prefer to receive dividends rather than capital gains.

e. The result is clienteles of investors with different dividend preferences. In equilibrium, there will be the proper distribution of firms with differing dividend policies to exactly meet the needs of investors.

3. Factors influencing Dividend Policy

(1) Legal Rules

a. Capital Impairment Rule: many states prohibit the payment of dividends if these dividends impair “capital”.

b. Insolvency Rule: some states prohibit the payment of cash dividends if the company is insolvent under either a “fair market valuation”or “equitable”sense.

c. Undue Retention of Earnings Rule: prohibits the undue retention of earnings in excess of the present and future investment needs of the firm.

(2) Funding Needs of the Firm

(3) Liquidity: dividend represents a cash flow, the greater the liquidity of a company, the greater its ability to pay a cash dividend.

(4) Ability to Borrow: similar with liquidity, the greater the ability of the firm to borrow, the greater its ability to pay a cash dividend.

restriction on the payment of dividend.

(6) Control: sometimes companies in danger of being acquired may establish a high dividend payout to please shareholders.

4. Stock Dividends: A payment of additional shares of stock to shareholders. (Often used in place of or in addition to a cash dividend)

(1) Small-percentage stock dividends: typically less than 25% of previously outstanding common stock.

(2) Large-percentage stock dividends: typically 20% or greater of previously outstanding common stock. The material effect on the market price per share causes the transaction to be accounted for differently. Reclassification is limited to the par value of additional shares rather than pre-stock-dividend value of additional shares.

5. Stock Splits: An increase in the number of shares outstanding by reducing the par value of the stock.

(1) A 2-for-1 stock split would have similar economic consequences as a 100% stock dividend but require different accounting treatment.

(2) Primarily used to move the stock into a more popular trading range and increase share demand.

(3) Value to Investors of Stock Splits

a. Effect on investor total wealth ---- no effect

b. Effect on investor psyche ---- good effect

c. Effect on cash dividends ---- good or bad effect

d. Informational content ---- increased B e f o r e 5% S t o c k D i v i d e n d Common stock ($5 par; 400,000 s h a r e s ) $ 2,000,000 A d d i t i o n a l p a i d -i n c a p i t a l

1,000,000 R e t a i n e d e a r n i n g s

Total shareholders’ equit y $10,000,000

A f t e r 5% S t o c k D i v i d e n d

Common stock ($5 par; 420,000 s h a r e s ) $ 2,100,000

A d d i t i o n a l p a i d -i n c a p i t a l 1,700,000 R e t a i n e d e a r n i n g s Total shareholders’ equity $10,000,000

B e f o r e 100% S t o c k D i v i d e n d

Common stock

($5 par; 400,000 s h a r e s ) $ 2,000,000 A d d i t i o n a l p a i d -i n c a p i t a l 1,000,000 R e t a i n e d e a r n i n g s Total shareholders’ equity $10,000,000 A f t e r 100% S t o c k D i v i d e n d Common stock

($5 par; 800,000 s h a r e s ) $ 4,000,000 A d d i t i o n a l p a i d -i n c a p i t a l 1,000,000 R e t a i n e d e a r n i n g s Total shareholders’ equity $10,000,000

B e f o r e 2-f o r -1 S t o c k S p l i t

Common stock

($5 par; 400,000 s h a r e s ) $ 2,000,000 A d d i t i o n a l p a i d -i n c a p i t a l 1,000,000 R e t a i n e d e a r n i n g s Total shareholders’ equity $10,000,000 A f t e r 2-f o r -1 S t o c k S p l i t

Common stock

($2.50 par; 800,000 s h a r e s ) $ 2,000,000 A d d i t i o n a l p a i d -i n c a p i t a l 1,000,000 R e t a i n e d e a r n i n g s Total shareholders’ equity $10,000,000

财务管理考试重点

第一章财务管理概述 一、单项选择题(从每小题的各备选答案中选出一个你认为正确的答案,将其英文大写字母编号填入括号内,以后各章同此。)。 1.财务管理是企业组织财务活动,处理与各方面()的一项经济管理工作 A.筹资关系 B.投资关系 C.分配关系 D.财务关系 2.企业资金运动包括的经济内容有()。 A.筹集、使用、收回 B.使用、耗费、分配 C.使用、收回、分配 D.筹集、投放、使用、收回、分配 3.财务管理最主要的环节是()。 A.财务预测 B.财务计划 C.财务控制 D.财务决策 4.企业的财务管理目标是()。 A.利润最大化 B.风险最小化 C.企业价值最大化 D.报酬率最大化 5.筹资管理的目标是()。 A.追求资本成本最低 B.获取最大数额的资金 C.比较小的成本获取同样多的资金提高企业价值 D.尽量使筹资风险达到最小 6.直接影响财务管理的环境因素是()。 A.经济体制 B.经济结构 C.金融环境 D.竞争 7.企业价值是指()。 A.全部资产的帐面价值 B.净资产的帐面价值 C.全部财产的市场价值 D.净资产的市场价值 二、多项选择题(从每小题的各备选答案中选出你认为正确的多个答案,将其英文大写字母编号填入括号内,以后各章同此。)。 1.下列经济活动中,属于企业财务活动的有() A.资金营运活动 B.利润分配活动 C.筹集资金活动 D.投资活动 2.以企业价值最大化作为理财目标的优点是( ) A.考虑了资金的时间价值和风险价值 B.有利于社会资源的合理配置 C.有利于克服管理上的短期行为 D.反映了对资产保值增值的要求 3.协调所有者与经营者之间矛盾的措施包括( )。 A.解聘 B.接收 C.激励 D.规定借款的用途 4.以企业价值最大化作为财务管理的目标,其优点是() A.考虑资金的时间价值 B.考虑风险因素的影响 C.比较容易确定企业价值 D.充分体现了对企业保值增值的要求 5.在不存在通货膨胀的情况下,利率的组成要素包括() A.纯利率 B.违约风险报酬率 C.流动性风险报酬率 D.期限风险报酬率 6.影响财务管理的主要金融环境因素有()。 A.金融机构 B.金融工具 C.金融市场 D.利率 三、判断题(在每小题后面的括号内填入答案,正确的用“√”表示,错误的用“×”表示。以后各章同此。) 1.在协调所有者与经营者矛盾的方法中,“解聘”是一种通过所有者来约束经营者的方法。() 2.财务关系是指企业在财务活动中与有关各方面发生的各种关系。() 3.资本利润率最大化或每股利润最大化虽然没有考虑风险因素,但考虑了资金时间价值的因素。()

财务管理知识培训知识点总结

财务管理知识培训知识 点总结 This model paper was revised by LINDA on December 15, 2012.

《财务管理》知识点总结 《财务管理》知识点总结第一章财务管理总论《财务管理》对于大多数学文科的考生来说是比较头疼的一门课程,复杂的公式让人一看头就不由自主的疼起来了。但头疼了半天,内容还是要学的,否则就拿不到梦寐以求的中级职称。因此,在这里建议大家在紧张的学习过程中有一点游戏心态,把这门课程在某种角度上当成数字游戏。那就让我们从第一章开始游戏吧! 首先,在系统学习财务管理之前,大家要知道什么是财务管理。财务管理有两层含义:组织财务活动、处理财务关系。 企业所有的财务活动都能归结为下述四种活动中的一种: 1、投资活动。通俗的讲,就是怎么样让钱生钱(包括直接产生和间接产生)。因为资金的世界是不搞计划生育的,所以投资所产生的收益对企业来说是多多益善。该活动有两种理解:广义和狭义。广义的投资活动包括对外投资和对内投资(即内部使用资金)。狭义的投资活动仅指对外投资。教材所采用的是广义投资的概念。该活动在第四、第五章讲述。 2、资金营运活动。企业在平凡的日子里主要还是和资金营运活动打交道,该活动对企业的总体要求只有一个:精打细算。该活动在第六章讲述。 3、筹资活动。企业所有的资产不外乎两个来源:所有者投入(即权益资金)和负债(即债务资金)。该活动在第七、第八章讲述。

4、资金分配活动。到了该享受胜利果实的时候了,这时就有一个短期利益和长远利益如何权衡的问题,这就是资金分配活动所要解决的问题。该活动在第九章讲述。 至于八大财务关系及五大财务管理环节,只要是认识中国字,并能把教材上的内容认认真真的看一遍,这些内容也就OK了。 财务管理忙活了半天,目的是什么,这就牵扯到财务管理目标的问题。一开始,企业追求利润的最大化,但后来发现它是个满身缺点的“坏孩子”,其主要缺点有四: 1、没有考虑资金时间价值; 2、没有反映利润与资本之间的关系; 3、没有考虑风险; 4、有导致企业鼠目寸光的危险。 后来,人们又发现了一个“孩子”,这个“孩子”有一个很大的优点,那就是反映了利润与资本之间的关系,但上一个“坏孩子”的其余三个缺点仍未克服,因此人们对这个“孩子”并不满意。这个“孩子”的名字叫每股收益最大化。经过一段时间的摸索,人们终于发现了一个“好孩子”,那就是企业价值最大化,它克服了“ 坏孩子”身上所有的缺点。它不仅受到企业家的青睐,也受到了教材的青睐(教材所采用的观点就是“好孩子”),忙活了半天,就是为了实现这个目标。当然,这个“好孩子”也有一些不尽如人意的地方:在资本市场效率低下的情况下,股票价格很难反映企业所有者权益的价值;法人

2007-2008第2学期北航经济管理概论试题与解答A卷

北京航空航天大学2007—2008第二学期 经济 管理概论期末考试试卷(A ) 注意:①按照考卷的要求解答,不符合要求无分; ②所有试题按题号,顺序答在答题纸上,不得随意改变顺序、不得不写题号。 学生姓名学生学号 考试分数考试时间2008-6-26 1、生产系统空间组织的工艺专业化原则最适合于多品种小批量生产。 2、以NPV和NPVR评价两个投资方案,NPV大的方案,NPAVR一定也大,因而评价结论一定一致。 3、马斯洛提出的“需求层次理论”,最高层次的需求是尊重需求。 4、某种商品的需求价格弹性为– 1.2。现欲提高其价格,预计以后总收入将会提高。 5、当决策的状态空间有两个或两个以上,且各状态发生的概率已知,此时面对的决策问题从状态分析,是不确定性决策。 二、概念题(5个,10分,每个2分) 1、市场经济 2、系统 3、固定资产折旧 4、资金时间价值 5、价值工程 三、选择题(共20分,每个2分。将你认为最佳选项英文字母填入下表。)

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北航经济管理复习纲要(From xx_buaa)

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财务管理复习重点

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财务管理学公式 期末考试复习公式大全

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第二部分企业财务管理——第一章财务管理基础 【考试要求】 1.财务管理的含义、内容、目标、职能 2.货币时间价值基本原理及其计算 3.投资风险与报酬的关系及风险报酬率的衡量 本章内容中级资格与初级资格的考试要求基本相同,以下五项知识点存在要求层次上的差别:知识点中级初级 货币时间价值的复杂情况的计算与运用掌握熟悉 货币时间价值的特殊情况的计算与运用熟悉了解 单项投资风险报酬率的计算与运用掌握熟悉 投资组合的风险类型掌握熟悉 投资组合风险报酬率和必要报酬率的计算与运用熟悉了解 第一节财务管理概述 一、财务管理的含义 1.企业财务管理 以企业特定财务管理目标为导向,组织财务活动、处理财务关系的价值管理活动,是企业管理的重要组成部分。具体包括四层涵义: 1)导向:财务管理目标; 2)对象:财务活动和财务关系; 3)核心:价值管理; 4)地位:整个经营管理不可或缺的重要组成部分。 2.财务活动 1)资本筹集:通过金融市场和筹资渠道,采用发行股票、发行债券和银行借款等方式来筹集资本。 2)资本投入:运用所筹集的货币资金购置所需要的固定资产和无形资产等长期资产。 3)资本营运:在持续的生产经营过程中,购买材料、商品,不断调整资本,使资本处于持续的营运状态。 4)资本回收:按照规定的程序对收入进行分配,包括依法纳税,补偿成本费用,向投资者分配利润等。 3.财务关系 1)企业与投资者(股东)之间 2)企业与债权人之间 3)企业(作为股东)与受资企业之间 4)企业(作为债权人)与债务人之间 5)企业与税务机关之间 6)企业与职工之间 【例题1·单项选择题】(2013初) 企业运用货币资金购置长期资产所反映的财务活动是()。 A.资本筹集 B.资本投入 C.资本营运 D.资本回收 『正确答案』B 『答案解析』用货币资金购置长期资产所反映的财务活动是资本投入活动。

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