Corpus Linguistics and Its Application in ELT2

Corpus Linguistics and Its Application in ELT

语料库语言学及其在英语教学中的应用

Abstract:This paper introduces the background of corpus and corpus linguistic, the more we know the corpora linguistics, the more possibility we can relate it in English language teaching (ELT).The purposes of this paper is to find some relates of Corpus-based approaches to the field of ELT and especially to discuss how to use concordancing for ELT. From this, I can infer that corpus-based instruction can be used for the consciousness-raising of classroom teachers about the dimensions of the learners’ task and for prioritizing the emphasis given to various learning goals in the classroom. A major contribution of work in corpus linguistics to language teaching is thus to provide quantitative evidence on the distribution of the component parts of the language, as a yardstick against which to evaluate subjective judgments about the goals and content of instruction.

In addition, this paper also points out the existing problems and its improvement in the actual application of corpus linguistics to the whole process of ELT, so it is not only a challenge to traditional teaching model but also to its own development.

Keywords:Corpora, Corpus linguistics, ELT, Concordance

摘要：本文对语料库和语料库语言学的背景进行了简介，阐述了语料库语言学在英语教学中的应用及其方法，尤其对如何使用语汇索引及其作用进行了探讨。由此可以推断出语料库语言学已在英语语言教学界崭露头角，语料库语言学对教师的教学和学生的学习都起着重要的作用。另外，本文也指出了实际语料库语言学在英语教学中的应用中存在的问题以及需要改进的地方，认为真正把语料库语言学全程应用于英语教学不仅是对传统理性教学模式的挑战,也是对其本身发展的一种挑战。

关键词：语料库，语料库语言学，英语教学，重要语汇索引

1. Introduction

A corpus, as a collection of texts in an electronic database, is a body of written text or transcribed speech which can serve as a basis for linguistic analysis and description. After a long time exploit, the compilation and analysis of corpora stored in computerized databases has led to a new scholarly enterprise known as corpora linguistics. The impact of corpora on linguistics has been compared to that of the telescope on astronomy. Corpora linguistics can help us understand how to learn or teach a language usefully. It should be made clear that corpus linguistic is not a mindless process of automatic language description. Linguistics use corpora to answer questions and solve problems on the ELT.

Corpus linguistics involving computers for text storage and analysis can produce descriptions of language which have important implications for language teaching, both in helping to identify

the content of instruction and in methodological approaches to instruction. Corpus-based teaching materials can help avoid oddities because the texts are authentic and each word can be displayed in or extracted from its original context. With the help of computer, clearly, teachers will not be able to teach everything, and are going to have to select from the available options according to their learners’ needs.

2. The Background of Corpora

2.1 Brief view on corpora

The word corpus today usually refers to a database of language stored in a computer, which is thereby available for analysis by linguists and other researchers. Computer corpora have been around in some form or other since the 1960s (Kennedy 1998:23) but only in the last 20 years or so have advances in storage capacity and software brought out their potential more fully. Originally done by hand, corpora are now largely derived by an automated process.

A corpus constitutes an empirical basis not only for identifying the elements and structural patterns which make up the systems we use in a language, but also for mapping out our use of these systems. A corpus can be analyzed and compared with other corpora or parts of corpora show how often particular phonological, lexical, grammatical, discoursal or pragmatic features occur, and also where they occur.

2.2 The purposes of establishing corpora

Corpora have been compiled for many different purposes, which in return influence the design, size and nature of the individual corpus. Some current corpora intended for linguistic research have been designed for general descriptive purposes, that is, they have been designed so that they can be examined or trawled to answer questions at various linguistic levels on the prosody, lexis, grammer, discourse patterns or pragmatics of the language. Other corpora have been designed for specialized purposes such as discovering which words and word meanings are most frequently used by workers in the oil industry or economics; or what differences there are between uses of a language in different geographical, social, historical or work-related contexts. Normally, a corpus designed for linguistic analysis is normally a systematic, planned and structured compilation of text.

3. The Background of Corpora linguistic

3.1 Brief view on corpora linguistic

With the advent of easy computational access to increasing masses of language data, corpus linguistics, which is concerned primarily with the description and explanation of the nature, structure and use of languages and with particular matters such as language acquisition, variation and change, has established its place in linguistics. Corpus linguistics is the study of language as expressed in corpora or "real world" text, developed by the growing of corpus, which could provide a large amount of authentic data and offers juncture to systematic curriculum designing with the help of comp uter’s ability of searching for, retrieving , sorting and calculating data as students, requirements and objectives vary according to different

circumstances. This represents a digestive approach to deriving a set of abstract rules by which a natural language is governed or else relates to another language.

3.2 The research methods of corpus Linguistics

Corpus Linguistics has generated a number of research methods, attempting to trace a path from data to theory. Wallis and Nelson (2001) first introduced what they called the 3A perspective: Annotation, Abstraction and Analysis.

3.2.1 Annotation

Annotation consists of the application of a scheme to texts. Annotations may include structural markup, part-of-speech tagging, parsing, and numerous other representations.

3.2.2 Abstraction

Abstraction consists of the translation (mapping) of terms in the scheme to terms in a theoretically motivated model or dataset. Abstraction typically includes linguist-directed search but may include e.g., rule-learning for parsers.

3.2.3 Analysis

Analysis consists of statistically probing, manipulating and generalizing from the dataset. Analysis might include statistical evaluations, optimization of rule-bases or knowledge discovery methods.

3.3 The scope of Corpus linguistics

Corpus linguistics is based on bodies of text as the domain of study and as the source of evidence for linguistic description and argumentation. It has also come to embody methodologies for linguistic description in which quantification of the distribution of linguistic items is part of the research activity. As Leech (1992:107) has noted, the focus of study is on performance rather than competence, and on observation of language in use leading to theory rather than vice versa.

Corpus linguistics are concerned typically not only with what words, structures or uses are possible in a language but also with what is probable，namely，what is likely to occur in language use. Corpus linguistics, like all linguistics, is concerned primarily with the description and explanation of the nature, structure and use of language and languages and with particular matters such as language acquisition, variation and change. But, corpus linguistics is not simply a faster way of describing how a language works, or is about the nature of linguistic evidence. Analysis of a corpus by means of standard corpus linguistic research software can and frequently does reveal facts about a language which we might never previously have thought of seeking.Altenberg’s (1991a) study of amplifier collocations in English, for example, raised questions about semantic classes of maximizers and boosters such as perfectly or awfully which probably would not have been asked without the evidence of a corpus. He found that frequent maximizers such as quite tend collocate with non-scalar words while absolutely have a greater tendency than other maximisers to collocate with negatives. The major shift in methodology associated with corpus linguistics comes not from theory but rather from what the use of corpora makes possible.

4. Corpus-based approaches to ELT

ELT theories and practices are influenced by facts and opinions about the conditions necessary for successful language learning, the background, attitudes and goals of particular learners, the techniques and procedures which are believed to facilitate language learning most

efficiently, and what we believe needs to be learned in order to be a language user. For much of the last there decades, main-stream language teaching theory has focused on the process of learning through communication, rather than through the more traditional focus on the forms of language. That is, the focus of language teaching shifted away from principled ways of learning vocabulary and grammar on to learning how to do things with words. The rediscovery that language existed to communicate both propositional and social meaning thus led to a pedagogical emphasis on messages and the massagers rather than the linguistic system which carried them

4.1 The content of language teaching

There is increasing evidence from corpus studies of English to suggest which language items and processes are most likely to be encountered by language users, and which therefore may deserve more investment time in instruction. Curriculum designers and classroom teachers need to have access to this information through better reference materials and syllabuses.

In the literature, one can find two broad schools of thought about how far Corpus Linguistic can and should influence the content of language teaching. The weaker version has been called the “modeling” approach and the stronger version the “corpus-driven” approach.

4.1 .1 The “modeling” approach

The term modeling comes from Carter, who suggests that syllabus designers might be able to devise new syllabus components using raw corpus data mediated by principles of good language teaching, such as simplification.

Under the banner of modeling we might also include the practice of using corpus data to information and validate the language found in existing coursebooks, in particular, the grammatical content, which according to Chalker is generally structure-based (1994:41). Corpus Linguistic can help verify whether and to what degree this content corresponds to “real-life” language. If there are wide gaps found between the data and the coursebook models, the writer should be able to account for them on pedagogic principles. If no such case can be made, we can argue that the syllabus should be edited appropriately.

4.1.2 The corpus-driven approach and the lexical syllabus

In contrast to modeling, the corpus-driven approach goes much farther, advocating an entirely new way of looking at syllabus design. In this view, Corpus Linguistic findings are not simply a contributor or arbiter of syllabus content but the primary source. As noted earlier, one of the major findings of corpus linguistics is the intimate relationship between the syntactical patterning of words and their meanings. Increasingly, writers are pointing out the difficulty of maintaining a distinction between the grammar of English and its vocabulary. Sinclair is blunt on the matter: “There is ultimately no distinction between form and meaning” (1991:7). Necessarily, such a view will have implications for language teaching.

There are few aspects of language structure and use which cannot be described from a distributional perspective, and potentially, therefore, corpus-based description should make an important contribution to the content of ELT. Such analysis can be used not only for syllabus design and the sequencing of pedagogical materials.

4.2 Language teaching methodology

In addition to its impact on the linguistic content of language pedagogy, corpus-based research also has the potential to have a direct effect on language teaching methodology. For over three decades the analysis and description of corpora has accumulated facts about lexis, grammar and discourse at a time when language teachers were being encouraged to expose learners to authentic spoken discourse or written texts and to the negotiation of meaning with interlocutors.

Collections, where grammar and lexis meet in the phrase, are now taken seriously in language pedagogy because they can be identified empirically by the methodologies developed in corpus analysis. This knowledge, incorporating a wider notion of the word, can also contribute to the revival of lexically based approached to language teaching by including both systemic and distributional data (Kennedy, 1990).

Corpora should be used judiciously for pedagogical purposes, informing instruction rather than determining it so as to avoid the risk of a return to prescriptivism. Frequency of occurrence in corpora should be only one of the criteria used to influence instruction. Sometimes, according to the learners, less frequent items or processes in a language way deserve more attention than the most frequent, simply because are known to be learning problems with a wide range of uses. The facts about language and language use which emerge from corpus analyses should never be allowed to become a burden for pedagogy.

While the possibility of automatic analysis of corpora offers an exciting prospect, corpus research which combines computerized analysis and counting, with manual analysis, can be particularly useful for ELT. Language teachers who properly view language as a system which functions to communicate propositional, illocutionary and sociolinguistic meaning need to have distributional information on aspects of language which require manual as well as computerized analysis.

5. How to use concordancing for ELT purposes

Corpus linguists have shown a persistent interest in the language-pedagogical implications and applications of corpus-based research for several decades. The most widely used corpus-based technique or activity associated with learner-controlled exploratory interaction is concordancing. The use of a concordance to analyze a corpus has been an important technique or tool in lexicography and other fields. For example, the COBUILD project(Sinclair 1987), which treats the teacher as the primary user of corpora and a filter of corpus data which reaches the student, resulting in a new generation of learner dictionaries, and the second practical application of corpora, the “data-driven learning approach” (Johns 1991) provides ample testimony of this fact.

5.1 The COBUILD project——the corpus for the teacher

Teachers may want to treat concordancers as reliable sources of relevant and up-to-date linguistic information, which can be found more quickly than in a dictionary and accompanied by numerous examples of use.

First, a concordancer’s output can be used as authentic teaching material and can be either selected or pre-processed by the teacher, or it can serve as raw material, which can be evaluated

and analyzed by learners themselves during in-class concordancing. Second, another option for teacher is to prepare his own teaching material based upon corpus data. By editing and rearranging the concordancer’s output, the teacher may thus design several types of language exercises. Kaminska mentions such exercises as gap-filling or guessing and developing a context（students try to reconstruct full sentences from fragments）.Third, corpora can enable the construction of exercises which focus on word-formation or which improve student s’ writing skills by introducing various stylistic figures or discourse markers. Forth，et other options are to create semantic exercises (students focus on the meaning of the words) or literary-oriented exercises (students may compare different literary works or genres in terms of style) (Kaminska2001:10).

Learner corpora created from collections of students’essays or transcribed utterances may well serve as a diagnostic tool. By exploring such corpora the teacher may objectively assess the students’correctness and find the most typical mistakes in the use of both grammar and vocabulary that can be dealt with during the lessons through additional explanations and carefully prepared drills.

5.2 The data-driven learning approach——the corpus for the learner

This approach puts emphasis on enhancing students’creativity, cleverness, and analytical skills, since each student has to find solutions on his own or notice a prevailing pattern in the provided data without the teacher’s help. It can also be argued that such learning through exploration makes the language information easier to remember and accelerates student’s progress.

The student can be allowed to browse freely through the corpus and by inventing his own queries for the concordancer, then infer some reoccurring patterns or check some of his or her presumptions concerning grammar or usage.For example, according to concordance, the following sentences represent the relatively typical cases about learner’s negative transfer phenomenon:

There is a greater risk of getting a fire in crowded offices.

You should evacuate a building as soon as a fire happens.

Special equipment is needed to destroy the fire.

You should not water an electrical fire. (Kennedy, 2000)

Students may be asked to analyze their mistakes with the use of the concordancer or to work with the corpus to solve linguistic problems. This application can be further divided depending on who has the dominant role in the reasoning process, whether the teacher provides students with numerous hints and poses questions to be answered, or allows for students’initiative in formulating problems.

6. The existing problems and its improvement

6.1 The gap between the rapid development of applied corpus linguistics and its influence on modern classroom resources

In reality, the influence of applied corpus-linguistic research on the actual practice of ELT is still relatively limited. Tribble (2000: 31), for example, admits that “not many teachers seem to be

using corpora in their classrooms.” The average English teacher’s knowledge can only be bridged if many more English language teachers are systematically familiarized with the basic foundations, implications and applications of corpus linguistics. This brings the need for a large-scale popularization of corpus linguistics among English teachers. Most importantly, it is obvious that learners will only get access to corpus data if teachers themselves work with corpora and make them available to their students.

6.2 The reliability of corpus

The size of corpus clearly affects its reliability. Sometimes analyses based on quite small corpora are published, and this generates uncertainty as to whether the findings should be generalized or taken very seriously. The availability of the second-generation corpora should greatly improve the reliability of corpus-based analysis because of their size and methods of compilation.

6.3 The need of specialization

More research is needed on lexical distribution in specialized subject fields based on corpora rather than single texts. Therefore, we need more genre-sensitive studies and more specialized corpora in addition to the larger representative corpora as a basis for analysis.

7. Conclusion

To sum up, with a corpus stored in a computer, it is easy to find, sort and count items, either as a basis for linguistic description or for addressing language-related issues and problems. It is not surprising, therefore, that a wide range of research activities have come to be within the scope of corpus linguistics. Analyses can attribute to the making of dictionaries, word lists, descriptive grammars, diachronic and synchronic comparative studies of speech varieties, and to stylistic, pedagogical and other applications. With appropriate software it is easy to study the distribution of phonemes, letters, punctuation, inflectional and derivational morphemes, words，collocations, instances of particular word classes, syntactic patterns, or discourse structures.

Corpora give numerous opportunities to both teachers and learners, enrich the language instruction process and create a new didactic potential which has yet not been fully assesses and appreciated. Provided by the development of computing, Corpus linguistics will be exploited dramatically bit by bit, with consequences for linguistic description, natural language processing and ELT. Insights from corpus linguistics seem likely to affect ELT in fundamental ways in the future. The increasing prevalence and awareness of corpus linguistic among teachers and learners means there will be a “growing expectation” that ELT for future.

References

Altenberg, B. (1990a). Amplifer collocations in spoken English, in Johansson and Stenstrom （1991):127-148

Chalker, S. (1994). Pedagogical Grammar: Principles and Problems. Grammar and the Language Teacher. M. Bygate, A. Tonkyn and E. Williams. Hemel Hempstead, Prentice Hall: 31-44. Johns, T. (1991). Should you be persuaded: Two examples of data-driven learning materials, English Language Research Journal, 4: 1-16.

Kennedy, G. (2000).An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics . Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press &Pearson Education Limited,

Kennedy, G. (1998). An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics. Harlow, Longman.

Kennedy, G. (1990).Collections: where grammar and vocabulary teaching meet, in Series NO.24.Singapore: Regional Language Centre,215-229

Krishnamurthy, R. (2002). "The Corpus Revolution in EFL Dictionaries." Kernerman Dictionary News 10: 1-6.

Leech, G. (1992).Corpora and theories of linguistic performance, in Svartvik (1992b):105-122 Sinclair, J.M. (ed.) (1987). Looking up: An account of the COBUILD project in lexical computing, London: Collins.

Sinclair, J. (1991). Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Tribble, C. (2000). Practical uses for language corpora in ELT, in P. Brett and G. Motteram. (eds.), A Special interest in computers: Learning and teaching with information and communicationstechnologies,Whitstable, Kent,UK: IATEFL, pp. 31-41.

Willis, J, D. (1990).The lexical syllabus, in Sinclair, J., Hoey, M. and Fox, G. (eds.)Techniques of Description London: Collins

Wallis, S.and Nelson G. (2001). Knowledge discovery in grammatically analyzed corpora. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 5: 307-340.

英语2Linguistics题目及答案

Quiz of Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False. 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( T) 2. Linguistics studies particular language, not language in general. ( F) 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. ( F ) 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. ( T ) 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. ( T) 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistics study. ( F) 7. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. ( F ) 8. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. ( T) 9. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. ( F ) 10. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure. ( F) II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given. 1. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k nowledge of the rules of his language. 2. Langue refers to the a bstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 3. D uality is one of the desing features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units. 4. Language is a system of a rbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 5. P arole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 6. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such application is generally known as a pplied linguistics. 7. Language is p roductive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before. 8. Linguistics is generally defined as the s cientific study of language. 9. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d escriptive. 10. Modern linguistics regards the written language as s econdary . III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.

商法名词解释

1. 商法是调整商事交易主体在其商行为中所形成的法律关系，即商事关系法律规范的总称。 2. 形式意义上的商法，是指奉行民商分立立法原则的国家在民法典之外制定的以“商法”命名的法典。 3. 实质意义上的商法是指一切调整商事关系的法律规范的总称。商法的形式包括各种有关商事的专门法规；法规范不仅仅存在于商法典之中，而且还大量地存在于民法、行政法以及其他法律、法规和判例之中。 其概念的理论理论着眼点为商事法律规范的性质、规范的作用、规范的构成、规范实施的方式等在理论上的有机统一。 4. 商法的原则是指集中体现商法的性质和宗旨，调整商事法律关系必须遵守的基本准则。它是制定商法典的根本出发点，更是适用商法的指导原则。 5. 商法的调整对象，是指商法作为特殊的法律规范体系对现实生活发生作用的范围. 5.商事法律关系，是指因商行为的实施而发生的权利义务关系。具体来说，它是指商主体及其他民事主体在实施商行为的过程中所形成的权利义务关系。 6. 商法的体系是指商法作为一个独立的法律部门，其内部具有逻辑联系的各项商事法律制度所组成的系统结构。 7. 商主体是指依照法律规定参与商事法律关系，能够以自己的名义从事商行为，享受权利和承担义务的人，包括个人和组织。 8. 固定商人，指以营利为目的，依法组织完整的机构，有计划地、反复连续地从事一种或多种商事行为，在经营中全部法律行为适用商法的商人。 9.拟制商人，指虽经商事登记，但仅从事小商人的业务或不从事商事行为的人，法律将其视为商人。 10.表见商人，是指虽非完全商人，也未在商事登记簿上注册登记，但已经以商人的表象从事了商行为，而应被视为商人的人。 11. .商法人是依法定的构成要件和程序设立的，拥有法人资格，参与商事法律关系，依法独立享有权利和承担义务的组织。 12. 国有商法人，由国家投资设立的从事生产经营的，具有独立权利能力和行为能力，并获得法人资格的企业或公司。 13.集体商法人，由公民和集体单位组合而成、从事生产和经营活动、具有独立权利能力和行为能力，能够独立承担法律责任并获得法人资格的集体商事组织。 14.合营或合资商法人，如果是不同投资主体共同投资组建的，可以是有限责任公司和股份有限公司。 15.私营商法人，由私人投资经营而取得法人资格，投资者以其出资额为限，商法人以全部财产对外承担责任的商事组织。 16.外商投资法人，外国投资者根据中国的法律规定，在中国境内投资设立的商业企业。 17. 商合伙，是指两个或两个以上的自然人、法人或其他组织按照法律和合伙协议的规定设立，普通合伙人对合伙经营所产生的债务承担无限连带责任，有限合伙人对合伙债务承担有限责任的商事组织。 注：商合伙作为商主体，具有从事商行为的权利能力和行为能力，但不具有完全责任能力。 18. 个人合伙是指两个以上自然人，按照合伙协议，各自提供资金、实物、技术等，合伙经营，共同劳动；投入的财产由个人所有，由合伙人同共使用，合伙经营积累的财产由合伙人共有；发生亏损由合伙人负连带清偿责任的商事组织。 19.合伙型联营是指企业事业单位之间依照联营合同组建的共同出资、共同经营、共享利润、共同承担无限连带责任的商事组织。 20.合伙企业，是指两个或两个以上的自然人、法人或其他组织按照法律和合伙协议的规定

第一章语言学导论解析

第一章语言学导论 Chapter1 Invitations to Linguistics Linguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as well as linguistics and other disciplines. Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译 The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself. Definition of Linguistics How do you define linguistics? What is linguistics? ——Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language. What are we going to learn about linguistics? 1. It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics. 语音学(phonetics);音系学(phonology);形态学(morphology);句法学(syntax) —Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学(semantics) ; 语用学(pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics——interdisciplinary learning Saussure, father of modern linguistics(现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast. 尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的 依赖中解放出来。然而，随着时间的推移，语言学和其他学科的联系越来越密切。Psycholinguistics Psycholinguistics, as implied by the name, is the study of psychological aspects of language. It usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. 心理语言学，顾名思义，是对语言的心理方面的研究，它通常研究的是与语言使用相关的 心理状态和心理活动。比如语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成等等。(chapter 9/chapter11) Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics, as implied by the name, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguistics attempts to look at language structures by paying attention to language use in a social context and on the other hand tries to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 这就是社会与语言的关系，一方面通过社会语境中语言使用情况的调查了解语言结构的问 题，另一方面又通过语言现象的分析了解社会构成的问题。 Research Focus1 Cross-cultural Communication There exists a close relationship between language and culture. Language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use. 语言是文化的载体，具有不可替代的重要性；文化通过语言得以凸现，其表现力得到充分展示。 心理学家罗杰斯(Rogers,1961), 真正的交流建立在理解基础上的倾听。 - 1 -

商法名词解释[1]

最重点的名词解释 1、商法：是以商事关系为调整对象的法律规范的总称。 2、商事关系：是指由商法所调整的商人从事市场经营活动所形成的社会关系，包括商事组织关系和商事交易关系。 3、营业自由是指在不违反法律的强制性规定和不违背公序良俗的前提下，任何人都享有组织营业的自由和从事营业活动的自由。 4、商主体：俗称为商人，是指依法取得商事主体资格，以自己的名义实施经营行为并能够独立享有和承担商事权利和义务的个人和组织。 5、商事能力包括商事权利能力和商事行为能力。 6、商事权利能力：是指据以充当商事主体，享有商事权利和承担商事义务的法律地位和法律资格，又称商事主体资格。 7、商事行为能力：是指商事主体据以独立参加商事法律关系、以自己的商事法律行为取得商事权利或承担商事义务的法律资格。 8、商业名称：又称商号，是商主体用以在营业商表示自己与其他商主体相区别的名称。 9、商事账簿：是指商主体为了表明其财产状况和经营状况而依法制作的用来记载其营业活动和资本运动状况的书面簿册。 10、商行为：又称商事行为，是指商主体所从事的以营利为目的的营业行为。 11、个人独资企业：指依法在中国境内设立的，由一个自然人投资，财产为投资个人所有，投资人以其个人财产对企业债务承担无限责任的经营实体。 12、合伙：是由合伙人共同约定出资，为了共同的目的，实行共同经营的联合体。 13、合伙企业：是两个以上的合伙人的集合，经过商事登记程序设立的经营性主体，具有团体的属性。 14、普通合伙企业：指由普通合伙人组成，合伙人对合伙企业债务承担无限连带责任的合伙企业。 15、合伙协议：是指两个以上合伙人为了设立合伙企业，实现共同的经济目的而达成的协议 16、入伙：指合伙企业成立后，合伙人之外的第三人加入合伙企业并取得合伙人资格或地位的法律关系。 17、退伙：指合伙人退出合伙企业，从而丧失其合伙人资格的法律行为。 18、法定退伙：指非依合伙人本人的意思，而依法律规定的条件进行的退伙。 19、除名退伙：是指某一合伙人因其行为，经其他合伙人一致要求而被强制退出合伙企业的退伙。 20、任意退伙：指声明退伙，是指依据合伙人自己的意思表示所进行的退伙。 21、特殊的普通合伙企业：是某种在债务承担方面存在特殊规则的普通合伙企业、 22、有限合伙：指由普通合伙和有限合伙依法设立的一种商业组织，其中普通合伙人对合伙组织的债务承担无限责任，有限合伙人仅以认缴的出资额危险对合伙组织的债务承担有限责任。 23、母公司：指拥有另一个公司的股权或资本达到实际控股程度，对其经营管理活动有控制权的公司。 24、子公司：指资本或股份的大部分为另一个公司所控制，且其经营管理活动受其制约的公司。子公司有其独立的财产和法人资格。 25、总公司：也称本公司，指从组织上、业务上管辖和控制其他公司的总机构。 26、分公司：指从业务上、组织上受其他公司管辖的分支机构，在法律上不具有法人资格。 27、公司法：是国家制定的调整公司在设立、组织、活动和终止过程中所发生的社会关系的法律规范的总和。 28、发起设立：也称单纯设立、共同设立，指公司的资本全部由发起人认购，不同发起人之外的任何人募集的设立方式。 29、募集设立：是指发起人只认购公司股份的一部分，其余部分向社会公开招募或者向特定对象募集的设立方式。 30、公司资本：也称公司的注册资本，指公司成立时由公司章程规定的、由股东出资形成的公司财产总额。

语言学 Linguistics

Language and Cognition Cognitive Linguistics What Is Cognitive Linguistics? Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s. It is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world. Main Points in Cognitive Linguistics Construal and Construal Operations Categorization Image Schemas Metaphor Metonymy Blending Theory Construal and Construal Operations Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc. Attention/ Salience Judgment/Comparison Perspective/Situatedness Construal and Construal Operations : Attention/ Salience The operation in salience have to do with our direction of attention towards sth. that is salient to us. In cognition, we direct our attention to the activation of conceptual structures. We use certain linguistic expressions to provoke certain patterns of activation. Construal and Construal Operations : Judgment/Comparison The construal operations of judgment/ comparison have to do with judging sth. by comparing it to sth. else. The figure-ground alignment apply to space, with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. Static and dynamic figure/ ground Trajector for a moving figure Landmark for the ground of a moving figure Categorization Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. There are three levels in categories. Basic level Super-ordinate level Subordinate level Metaphor Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of another. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. Lakoff and John classify conceptual metaphors into three categories Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors Structural metaphors Orientational metaphors Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors Ontological metaphors means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc. as entities and substances. Three Categories of Metaphor Structural metaphors Structural metaphors allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Three Categories of Metaphor Orientational metaphors Orientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation Metonymy Metonymy is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain Two Conceptual Configurations Whole ICM and its part(s) Parts of an ICM Metonymy — Whole ICM and its part(s) Thing-and-Part ICM Scale ICM Constitution ICM Event ICM Category-and-Member ICM

商法名词解释简答题大全

第一编商法总论 四、名词解释 1、商 2、商法 3、商事关系 4、商事主体 5、商人 6、商合伙、7。商法人9、商号 10、公示原则11、1807年法国商法典12。美国统一商法典12、商行为14、商事代理 1、什么是商法？商法的主要特征有哪些？ 2、商法的法律渊源？ 3、什么是商法的基本原则，它的主要内容有哪些？ 4、代商法为实现交易便捷，主要采取了哪些措施？ 5、维护交易公平的意义何在？商法是如何体现这一原则 的？ 6、什么是交易安全原则？商法是如何体现这一原则的？ 7、强化企业组织原则主要体现哪些方面？ &简述商主体的特征。 9、中世纪商人法有何特点 10、什么是商人？其应具备的基本条件是什么？ 11、是否具备商人资格有什么法律意义？ 12、在我国取得商人这种特殊主体资格应具备什么基本的条件？ 13、在我国，具有商人性质的主体主要有几种形式？ 14、简述代理商、居间商、行纪商的异同。 15、商事合伙的种类？ 16、商人与商业辅助人的联系和区别？ 17、什么是商行为？广义的商行为包括哪些？ 18、简述商事行为的法律特征及其基本分类？ 19、什么是单方商行为？什么是双方商行为？ 20、单方商行为是否应当由商法调整？为什么？ 21、什么是绝对商行为，什么是附属商行为？ 22、什么是代理？商业代理的经济意义主要有哪些体现？ 23、代理与代表的区别？ 24、商事经营中不正当竞争行为的表现形态？ 25、简述商事登记的特征。 26、我国商事登记的种类。 27、简述商业登记的原则 28、简述商事登记的法律效力。 29、简述商号权的内容及特点。 30、简述商号限制的内容。 31、简述我国对商号的法律保护？ 32、简述商业名称权的法律特征： 33、简述商业名称与商标的区别。 3 4、什么事营业转让？营业转让中受让人有什么义务？ 35、什么是商业账簿？商业账簿有什么意义？ 36、商业账簿有哪些种类？设置商业账簿的基本原则有哪些？ 37、简述商事帐簿的设置原则。 六、论述题 1、试述商法的调整对象。 2、试论述商法与民法的关系 3、试述商法与经济法的关系。 4、论述商法的效益原则。 5、比较法国商法典与德国商法典的异同？ 6、分析美国商法体系的特点、体系以及优缺点。 7、比较大陆法系商法立法体例的不同模式？ 8、试述民商合一和民商分裂的立法体例的优劣？ 9、试述中世纪商人法的产生与特点。 10、请比较商事主体、企业、公司、商事组织之间的差异？ 11、试举出现实生活中的商事经纪组织，并简要描述其特征。 12、商事登记申请的审查方式有哪几种？请简要分析中国的商事登记的规定。 13、区别营业转让与公司合并的区别与联系。 14、请结合案例分析商业账簿制度的重要性和法律效力。 15、简述商事帐簿法律关系。 第二编企业与公司法 五、名词解释题 1 .企业2.个人独资企业 3. 合伙企业4、商事合 伙5、有限合伙6、隐名合伙 7。公司法8 。公司9 。一人公司10 .国有独 资公司11 。有限责任公司 12。股份有限公司13。两合公司14。人合公司15。资合公司16。上市公司 17。公司章程18、法定资本制19、许可资本制20、授权资本制21。注册资本22 。发起设立23。募集设立24 、股份25。股票26。股份转让27。股份回购28。股份收购29。股东30 。公司债券31。 公司债32。公司分立33。公司合并34。外国公司35。公积金 六、简答题 1、简述个人独资企业的概念、特征和设立条件。 2、简述个人独资企业和私营企业的异同。 3、合伙的特点及种类是什么？ 4、简述合伙企业的概念特征 5、简述合伙企业设立的条件 6、简述合伙企业和第三人的关系。 7、与公司相比较，合伙出资有什么特殊之处？ 8、简述合伙财产的性质 9、合伙企业的事务执行法律是如何规定的？ 10、合伙人在合伙事务的执行中有什么权利，承担什么义 务？ 11、请简要说明合伙企业与合伙人在债务清偿方面的相互关 系。 12、合伙人入伙，享受什么权利，承担什么义务？ 13、合伙人退伙的原因有哪些？ 14、简述一人公司和个人独资企业的异同 15、简述公司组织机构的设置原则 16、合伙企业的利润分配法律是如何规定的？ 17、合伙人的连带清偿责任是什么？ 18、合伙人的债务清偿与合伙企业的关系有哪些？ 19、入伙的条件和程序是什么？ 20、新合伙人的权利和责任是什么？ 21、退伙的原因有哪些，其效果是什么样的 22、合伙人出资份额转让有哪些相关规定？

语言学 Linguistics笔记

---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ 语言学Linguistics笔记 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacemen t Language can be used 1/ 38

Linguistics语言学归纳(可编辑修改word版)

Linguistics 1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language) phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication. morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning. pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication. Some distinctions in linguistics: 1)Prescriptive & descriptive Prescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)

语言学专业词汇

A AcS (actor Subject), ReS (Receptor Subject) and DaS (dative vesubject) P85 Active deposit 活性沉积P393 adaptability制宜原则P39 adjustment 调整P135 AdjMr：Ajective Modifier 定语修饰语P19 Affixing morpheme of fixed position 定位性附加语素P342 Affixation 缀合法P29 All encompassing 无所不包P ix Aphasic 失语症患者P386 ApoP 同位短语式P188 Approximative system 近似体系P58 arbitrariness任意性; selectiveness 选择性P181 Aspect 体（tentative尝试体, inchoative开始体, successive继续体, perfect完成体, progressive 进行体）P114 Autonomy 自主权P53 B backshift后移P370/372 bilingualism 双语学P522 Blending 拼缀法P29 Bottom-up perception自下而上的感知，top-down perception自上而下的感知P493 C Cart Fames1980 对比分析P x circulativeness 周遍性P86 categorization范畴化, grouping 归为类P487 category word 范畴词P418/474/513 cleft sentence 分裂句P230 cognate equivalence同源对应P134/468，词根对应P478 cognitive schema认知图示P386 Cohesion 粘着性P62 Cohesion and coherence接应与连贯P74 Cohesive tie 联结关系接应词，additive 增补连接词，adversative 对比连接词，causal conjunction因果连接词，temporal conjunction 时间连接词P436 Combination (虚词功能)组合P452 Total combination完全结合，formal combination形式结合P464 Common value （语言）共同价值；special value 特征价值P47 Complement 补语P126Composition 合成法P29 Compactness of meaningful morpheme有义语素结合紧密度P299 Compressed predicate 紧缩式谓语P120 Compound （汉语）合成词P443 Conversion 转化法P29 Constant 常数（ie. tertium comparationis中间比较项）；variable变数；tertium 中间项P50

Linguistics

Linguistics What is Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavours to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language (ie., do not split infinitives). Linguists are not required to know many languages and linguists are not interpreters. The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover the universals concerning language. That is, what are the common elements of all languages. The linguist then tries to place these elements in a theoretical framework that will describe all languages and also predict what can not occur in a language. Linguistics is a social science that shares common ground with other social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, sociology and archaeology. It also may influence other disciplines such as english, communication studies and computer science. Linguistics for the most part though can be considered a cognitive science. Along with psychology, philosophy and computer science (AI), linguistics is ultimately concerned with how the human brain functions. Below are several different disciplines within linguistics. The fields of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and language acquisition are considered the core fields of study and a firm knowledge of each is necessary in order to tackle more advanced subjects. Phonetics Phonetics is the study of the production and perception of speech sounds. It is concerned with the sounds of languge, how these sounds are articulated and how the hearer percieves them. Phonetics is related to the science of acoustics in that it uses much the same techniques in the analysis of sound that acoustics does. There are three sub-disciplines of phonetics: ?Articulatory Phonetics: the production of speech sounds. ?Acousitc Phonetics: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds. ?Auditory Phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds. Phonology Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are organized in a language. Phonolgy examines what occurs to speech sounds when they are combined to form a word and how these speech sounds interact with each other. It endeavors to explain what these phonological processes are in terms of formal rules. Morphology