词语教学外文翻译一

外文翻译一：

Excerpt

words to more and more complex phrases. Children learn to listen and to talk long before they learn to read and write. The same sequence should be followed in classroom teaching. Extra difficulty would be created if one would try to develop English reading and writing skills before children can speak the language. In order to be able to speak the language, students need to know some vocabulary first. In this paper I will focus on how to teach vocabulary that enables students to construct a rich vocabulary bank. Guiding methods are introduced and sample activities are provided.

II. Main Part

1. The Importance of Teaching Vocabulary

1.1. Vocabulary Development in the Primary Grades

The findings of the “National Reading Panel” indicate that vocab ulary instruction does lead to gains in comprehension, but that methods must be appropriate to the age and ability of the reader. Using both indirect and direct teaching methods to build students’ oral and reading vocabularies should be a part of a balanced reading program. Indirect methods would include read-alouds, shared reading and writing experiences, and independent reading. Direct teaching of vocabulary should respond to the needs of the students and should actively engage them in the process(National Reading Panel, 2000).

All word learning tasks are not equal in difficulty. A child may understand the concept behind a word, but not know the word itself. For example, the word cease represents a known concept to most children; however, a young child has probably not heard this word used for stop.Learning a new word that represents a known concept is not as difficult as learning a new word that represents a new concept. Teachers in the primary grades introduce many new concepts, and direct instruction is necessary to build up the understanding of these concepts and the vocabulary words that represent them.

When teaching vocabulary words that represent known concepts, the emphasis should always be on the context in which the word appears. Discussing the meaning

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of the word from the context of the reading selection together with supplying a definition of the word will help to build meaning for students. If students are to acquire this word as part of their vocabulary, then they must be given repeated exposure of the word in a variety of contexts. They must also have opportunities to practise using the word in conversation and/or writing.

By the time children enter second grade, they are likely to know between 2,000 and 5,000 vocabulary words. This amazing growth continues throughout the elementary years, as most children gain 3,000 - 4,000 new vocabulary words each year that they can read and understand ( Teaching Reading in the 21st Century, 2001). By encouraging independent reading and providing both indirect and direct instruction in vocabulary, students can be helped to develop the vocabulary knowledge they will need for effective comprehension.

1.2. Educators View on Teaching Vocabulary

"Teaching one word at a time out of context is the worst way of teaching vocabulary, with rapid forgetting almost guaranteed," asserts Frank Smith, author of "The Book of Learning and Forgetting" (1998), recently published by Teachers College Press. According to Smith, people assimilate new vocabulary words from context the first time they read them, "provided that the gist of the material being read is both interesting and comprehensible. Within five more encounters, the word and its conventional meaning are usually firmly established in the mind of the reader."

Other educators who share this view add that when reading material isn't instantly interesting or comprehensible, it's the teacher's job to build context by activating students' prior knowledge of the topic. With regard to vocabulary, that means having students identify difficult words themselves and pool their knowledge to get the meaning. Ann Marie Longo, director of the Boys Town Reading Center, argues that teens can't use context effectively when their vocabularies are limited. Limited vocabulary is the most common problem among weak readers she's worked with. Longo begins with indirect instruction in words and their meanings and then provides high-interest opportunities to use the words. Vocabulary

expert Isabel Beck of the University of Pittsburgh embraces both approaches. For her, there are

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four ways to learn vocabulary: wide reading, hearing unfamiliar words in speech, direct instruction in words and "gimmicks" to boost students' interest.

Beck suggests teachers incorporate difficult words into their classroom routines and encourage students to look for the words in reading outside class. Longo agrees that students need to put new words to use in writing and conversation as well as reading. "For vocabulary instruction to increase comprehension," says Longo, "you have to see those words over and over again" ( When Adolescents Can′t Read: Methods and Materials that Work, 1999).

1.3. Memory and Storage Systems

Understanding how our memory works might help us create more effective ways to teach vocabulary. Research in the area, cited by Gairns and Redman (1986) offers us some insights into this process. It seems that learning new items involve storing them first in our short-term memory, and afterwards in long-term memory. We do not control this process consciously but there seem to be some important clues to consider. First, retention in short-term memory is not effective if the number of chunks of information exceeds seven. Therefore, this suggests that in a given class we should not aim at teaching more than this number. However, our long-term memory can hold any amount of information.

Research also suggests that our “mental lexicon” is highly organised and efficient, and that semantic related items are stored together. Word frequency is another factor that affects storage, as the most frequently used items are easier to retrieve. We can use this information to attempt to facilitate the learning process, by grouping items of vocabulary in semantic fields, such as topics (e.g. types of fruit). Oxford (1990) suggests memory strategies to aid learning, and these can be divided into creating mental linkages (grouping, associating, placing new words into a context), applying images and sounds (using imagery, semantic mapping, using keywords and representing sounds in memory), reviewing in a structured way and employing action (physical response or sensation, using mechanical techniques). The techniques just mentioned can be used to greater advantage if we can diagnose learning style preferences (visual, aural, kinesthetic, tactile) and make students aware of different memory strategies.

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Meaningful tasks, however, seem to offer the best answer to vocabulary learning, as they rely on students’ experiences and reality to facilitate learning. More meaningful tasks also require learners to analyse and process language more deeply, which should help them retain information in long-term memory. Forgetting seems to be an inevitable process, unless learners regularly use items they have learnt. Therefore, recycling is vital, and ideally it should happen one or two days after the initial input. After that, weekly or monthly tests can check on previously taught items. The way students store the items learned can also contribute to their success or failure in retrieving them when needed. Most learners simply list the items learnt in chronological order, indicating meaning with translation. This system is far from helpful, as items are

de-contextualised, encouraging students to over generalise their usage. It does not allow for additions and refinements nor does it indicate pronunciation. Teachers can encourage learners to use other methods, using topics and categories to organise a notebook, binder or index cards. Meaning should be stored using English as much as possible. Diagrams and word trees can also be used within this topic/categories organisation. The class as a whole can keep a vocabulary box with cards, which can be used for revision/recycling regularly.

1.4. Why Vocabulary is Important

Teachers may wonder why it is important to teach vocabulary. Well, there is a very clear answer to that question, namely that vocabulary is critical to reading success for three reasons, which I will explain now briefly. First of all, comprehension improves when you know what the words mean. Since comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading, you cannot overestimate the importance of vocabulary development. Secondly, words are the currency of communication. A robust vocabulary improves all areas of communication which are listening, speaking, reading and writing. Last but no least, when children and adolescents improve their vocabulary, their academic and social confidence and competence improve, too.

In turn, a deficit in vocabulary knowledge causes comprehension problems, and comprehension problems prevent people from improving their vocabulary knowledge on their own. Intensive vocabulary instruction can be effective in turning this situation around. What is required, though, is a clear and deliberate focus on facilitating students’ creation of meaning ful contexts for the word meanings they are learning,

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and a frequent and consistent emphasis on helping them make connections to what they already know.

1.5. Levels of Word Knowledge

“Word knowledge” refers to how well you know the meaning of a word. Research shows that there are three kinds of word knowledge. Firstly, there is a lack of word knowledge where the meaning is completely unfamiliar. Secondly, there is acquired word knowledge where the basic meaning is recognized after some thought. And last, there is established word knowledge where the meaning is easily, rapidly and automatically recognized (Beck, McKeown, and Omanson, 1987). Words from the third category are already established in the personal vocabulary bank and are the words you would use in conversation and writing. Though it’s enough for students to have a surface understanding of some words in a selection, for most words students must have this same established level of knowledge if they are to understand what they are reading (Nagy, Herman, and Anderson, 1985).

2. Teaching Vocabulary

2.1. Which Words Should be Taught

When making instructional decisions as to which words to teach, it is helpful to have a framework for decision-making in this area. Knowing what words to teach is the first step in providing effective vocabulary practice. Graves and Prenn, for instance, classify the words that should be devided into three types, each requiring a higher investment of teacher and learner time for instruction. With words that are already in the student's oral vocabulary, the students need only to identify the written symbol for such a word. When the word is one for which the student has acquired no concept and it appears frequently in the context, the teacher must take time to develop the concept through instruction. When the word is in the student's listening vocabulary, it may be taught though writing experiences and activities. Focus should be on helping students become independent learners; they should be encouraged to become actively involved in selecting words.

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I will shortly mention a practical guide that helps teachers to remember the types of words that they should teach explicitly. First of all, there are Type A Words.These words belong to academic language and the

content areas.Academic language describes the language of schooling,

words used across disciplines like genre and glossary. Content area words are specific to the discipline, words like organization in social studies and organism in science. Then there are Type B Words which are

the basics.There are hundreds of high-frequency words. The basics make up a large percentage of students′ reading and writing. Students must be able to read words like the, is, and, are, been and because.

The so-called Type C Words are connectors and act as signal words. There may be some overlap with the basic words. Students need to understand the signals for cause and effect relationships, sequence and other important indicators of how text is organized. In Type D Words the D stands

for difficult- words with multiple meanings are a challenge for all students and may be especially so for learners of the English language.

When considering words with multiple meanings teachers should also pay attention to the consonant-vowel-consonant words children encounter when first learning to read - for example words like jam and ham.These words have accessible meanings if you think of something you may eat with eggs in the morning (ham) or of the sweet, sticky stuff on toast (jam). But jam also describes a music playing session. So learning to decode should not be meaning-free, but should provide a good opportunity for teaching the meanings of words including multiple ones. This kind of experience with words improves comprehension.

At last there are also Type X Words which are the extras. These are the words that will not be encountered frequently but in a certain story or context they are important for decoding meaning. A good example of this type of word is spindle in “Sleeping Beauty.” It is important to the fairy tale, but it is not a very high-utility word. I just tell kids what words like this mean without any special teaching.

2.1.1. Basic Functional Vocabulary

In order to understand, speak, read and write a language, the students must acquire the basic functional vocabulary. New words are carefully selected, gradually introduced, and graded to make language learning smooth and easy. The following

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Information on this eBook

Title

The Teaching of Vocabulary in the Primary School Foreign Language Classroom

Author

Daniela Pohl

Year

2003

Pages

27

Archive No.

V34883

ISBN (eBook)

978-3-638-34971-0

ISBN (Book)

978-3-640-44099-3

DOI

10.3239/9783638349710

File size

224 KB

Language

English

Tags

TeachingVocabularyPrimarySchoolForeignLanguageClassroom

翻译部分：

国外小学词汇教学

（The Teaching of Vocabulary in the Primary School Foreign Language Classroom）

摘要：

很多词语都变得越来越复杂，拥有很多的词组。小孩子们在学习写和读之前就开始学习听和说了。而这样的规律同样适用于学校的教学。最大的困难就在于如果一个人在还不会说的时候就去学习英语的听力和写作技能，这样一来就会造成学生学习上的难点。因此，为了学生能更好地说，他们首先必须积累一些词汇。在这里我将结合我的指导理念和一些以下提供的案例就关于怎样教能帮助孩子们建立丰富的词汇上发表自己的看法。

主要内容：

1 词汇教学的重要性

1.1小学英语的词汇发展

“国家阅读小组”的研究结果表明，词汇教学对于获得文本的理解上有重大影响，但是这种观念一定适用有一定年龄和一定能力的阅读者。同时使用直接和间接的教学方法，帮助学生建立口语和阅读词汇应该是一个合理阅读计划中的一部分。而间接的教学方法包括大声朗读，读写结合分享交流经验以及自主阅读。直接的词汇教学应该满足学生的学习需要，同时要让他们积极参与学习过程。

所有单词的学习任务的难度是不同的。一个学生可能懂得一个词语背后的概念，但是不一定知道这个词本身的意义。比如wordceaserepresents的意思对于大多数的孩子而言已经知道了；然而，对于一个年轻的孩子来说可能没有听说过这个词还可以用forstop表示。学习一个新单词代替一个已知的概念和学习新的单词用新的概念的难度是不同的，前者更加容易。在小学，许多老师向学生介绍许多新的概念，并且在教学上采用直接的方式引导学生理解这些概念以及用所学的词汇去重新代替他们寻找相近的词义。

在教学词汇的时候，能用已知的概念代替所学的单词这样的教学能让学生更好地记忆和掌握。在教学单词的意思时，如果能根据阅读的课文采取上下文理解词义的方法能更好地帮助学生理解所学单词的词义。如果学生已经掌握这个词作为他词汇中的一部分，那么他们就应该能在不同的课文和情景中当这个词重复出现的时候还能清晰地了解和掌握这个词义与此同时，他们还必须要有机会在不同的语境或者写作中去运用这个单词。

当学生进入第二阶段学习的时候，他们中的大部分人都已经积累了2000到5000的单词词汇。这个惊人的增长将继续增加通过年复一年的训练和积累，因为据了解孩子们在每学年平均能获得3000到4000的新词汇。同时通过鼓励孩子们自己课外独立阅读和在课堂上采用多种方式教学词汇帮助学生积累丰富的词汇，来帮助他们理解课文内容。

1.2教育家对于词汇教学的观点

Frank Smith在《学习和遗忘》一书中提到“逐字逐句的教学单词是最糟糕的方式，而直接导致学生快速遗忘的结果。”根据Smith所说的，人们在接受和理解新的词汇的时候，他们首先是在上下文中看到这个词，然后在上下文中去理解词义，当然这个前提是建立在所读的资料是有趣并且容易让孩子们理解的。随着跟单词多次的接触和碰面中，这个词和它的传统的意义通常就会在读者头脑中牢固确立。

其他教育家的观点有的认为在阅读资料时不能单凭有趣或者容易理解的，而资料的选择就是教师的责任去删选最适合学生学习的内容。关于词汇之间的联系，就是要让学生能够区分容易混淆的单词以及运用自己所学的知识去理解词义。安玛丽Longo是男孩镇阅读中心的主任，她认为当青少年的词汇量有限的时候在有效地利用上下文理解单词上是存在困难的。有限的词汇量对于阅读能力较薄弱的读者而言是最常见的难题。Longo开始采用间接指

的教学方法联系单词他们的意义并提供多次运用单词的机会来帮助理解词义和运用单词。匹兹堡大学的词汇专家贝克伊莎贝尔同意这两种方法。对她而言，有四种方式去教学单词：广泛阅读学习积累词汇，语音听力重点训练不熟悉的单词，直接指示词和一些“噱头”来提高学生的学习兴趣。

1.3词汇教学的重要性

很多教师可能会困惑为什么词汇教学如此重要？很显然有一个明确的回答就是词汇是成功阅读三个因素之一。首先，当你知道这些词的意思时你的理解能力就提高了，因为理解是阅读的最终目的，你不能低估的词汇发展的重要性。其次，语言相当于交际的货币。一个强大的词汇将有助于所有交际领域的提升比如有助于听，说，读和写。最后，当儿童和青少年丰富词汇的同时，他们的学术和社会自信心也会大大提高。

反过来说，在词汇知识缺陷的基础上，人们的理解能力就会下降，而理解问题的困难也会从侧面提醒人们提高自己的词汇知识。而集中的词汇教学能有效地丰富学生的词汇。教师需要明白的就是什么是必需的比如情境创造这仅仅是促进学生对学习词的意义有帮助的又或者说要明确重点词汇，就在教学中把频繁出现的重难点词汇和他们已经学过的旧知串联在一起帮助他们理解新学习的概念。

2 词汇教学

2.1 必教的词汇

当我们明确哪些单词要教的时候，不管从教的效率还是从内容决策上都会对我们的教学有很大的帮助。而明确哪些词语是要教的首先要做的第一步就是提供有效的词汇训练。例如，某种程度上和坟墓，在教学的时候应分为三种类型的单词分类，每个都需要更高的投资即教师在教学的时候的时间安排和重难点不同。如果学生的口语词汇中已经掌握这个所学的单词的话，那么学生对于这样的词就只需要识别怎么写作为一种书面符号对待即可。当这个词是学生所不熟悉的，而它又频繁在上下文中出现的时候，教师就必须花时间通过某种方式让学生获得这个词的概念。当这个词已经存在在学生的听力词汇中的时候，那么它就可以着重在书写和运用上下一番功夫即可。因此词汇的教学应该把重点放在帮助学生成为独立的学习者；他们应该被鼓励积极参与中进行。

外文翻译二：

原文：

Teaching and Developing V ocabulary:Key to Long-Term Reading Success

JOHN J. PIKULSKI AND SHANE TEMPLETON The Central Importance of Vocabulary

It seems almost impossible to overstate the power of words; they literally have changed and will continue to change the course of world history. Perhaps the greatest tools we can give students for succeeding, not only in their education but more generally in life, is a large, rich vocabulary and the skills for using those words. Our ability to function in today’s complex social and economic worlds is mightily affected by our language skills and word knowledge.In addition to the vital importance of vocabulary for success in life, a large vocabulary is more specifically predictive and reflective of high levels of reading achievement. The Report of the NationalReading Panel (2000), for example, concluded, ―The importance of vocabulary knowledge has long been recognized in the development of reading skills. As early as 1924, researchers noted that growth in reading power relies on continuous growth in word knowledge‖ (pp. 4–15).

Reading Vocabulary

Young children naturally learn to communicate through listening and speaking. In order to make the transition to communicating through reading and writing, they need a large meaning vocabulary and effective decoding skills. There is an abundance of research evidence to show that an effective decoding strategy allows students not only to identify printed words accurately but to do so rapidly and automatically (Pikulski and Chard,2003). Given the focus of this paper, we will not attempt to review the rather complex topic of developing fluency. However, we do feel it is important to briefly address one aspect of decoding that is crucial for beginning readers: high-frequency vocabulary.

High-frequency vocabulary refers to those words that are used over and over again in our communications—they are important to both our meaning and literate vocabularies. Amere 100 words make up about 50% of most English texts; 200 words make up 90% of the running words of materials through third grade; and 500 words make up 90% of the running words in materials through ninth grade. If a reader is to have at least a modicum of fluency, it is critical that these words be taught systematically and effectively. The research of Ehri (1994, 1998) is particularly informative. Her research strongly suggests that high-frequency words should be introduced without written context so that students focus on their visual composition, that they should be practiced in materials that are at an appropriate level of challenge, and that they should be practiced several times in order to allow developing readers to recognize them instantly or, in other words, at sight. She also makes the important point that although many of these words do not conform completely to phonic generalizations or expectations (e.g. was), they nonetheless very frequently do have elements that are regular. For example, the w in was is regular and the s at the end of that word sometimes does have the /z/ sound. Ehri’s research strongly suggests that these phonic regularities are powerful mnemonics for remembering the words and should be pointed out, rather than expecting that students will remember the vague shape of the word, as was

the tradition with flash-card instruction for many years.

The High But Less Than Perfect Relationship Among the Vocabularies

There is no question that people who have large speaking vocabularies generally tend to have large listening, reading, and writing vocabularies; likewise people who are limited in one of these aspects are likely limited in other aspects as well. We have seen that this close relationship does not exist in preliterate children. Also, some children who develop large reading vocabularies may not use that vocabulary in their writing without teacher help and guidance.However, in the years during which children develop as readers and writers, there is an increasingly high relationship among all four aspects of vocabulary—listening, speaking, reading, and writing.Fostering improvement in one aspect has the potential for fostering improvement in another. Therefore, one responsibility of teachers is to help children transfer vocabulary skills from one form to another.

Vocabulary and Language Development: The Important Preschool Years

Scarborough (2001) reviews very convincing evidence that children who enter kindergarten with weak language skills are likely to encounter difficulty in learning to read. Hart and Risley (1995) conducted a careful, intensive study of early language development and found huge differences that reflected parents’ socioeconomic status. Extraordinary variation was found in the amount of talk that took place between parents and children from family to family. At the extremes, the children from high socioeconomic status had 16 times more language stimulation than children from lower status families. These differences in language experiences directly influenced children’s languag e growth. Children from parents of professionals had a cumulative vocabulary of about 1,100 words, those from working class families had about 650 words, and those from welfare families had just over 400 words. These differences systematically widened between the onset of speech and three years of age when the vocabulary measures weretaken.

More recently Farcus (2001) presented similar research data. He found that once children who were falling behind in language growth entered kindergarten, with its greater language stimulation, the language gap no longer widened. Nevertheless, although the gap didn’t widen, neither did it narrow. Research reviews such as that by Barnett (2001) suggest that it is possible for children who are behind in early language development to overcome these limitations. However, reviews such as that by Beck et al. (2002) and Juel et al. (2003) clearly show that not enough is being done in our school programs to help children who enter school with weak language and vocabulary development to catch up. Juel et al. concluded that although these children were exposed to much oral language stimulation in school, it was too incidental and insufficiently direct and intense to have a major impact..

A Comprehensive Approach to Teaching and Developing Vocabulary

The amount of vocabulary that children need to acquire each year is staggering in scope, estimated to be about 3,000 words a year. Therefore, a comprehensive approach consisting of the following components needs to be in place.

?Use ―instructional‖ read-aloud events.

?Provide direct instruction in the meanings of clusters of words and individual words.

?Systematically teach students the meaning of prefixes, suffixes, and root words.

?Link spelling instruction to reading and vocabulary instruction.

?Teach the effective, efficient, realistic use of dictionaries, thesauruses, and other reference works.

?Teach, model, and encourage the application of a word-learning strategy.

?Encourage wide reading.

?Create a keen awareness of and a deep interest in language and words.

翻译二：

成功教学和发展词汇的关键是长期的阅读

JOHN J. PIKULSKI AND SHANE TEMPLETON 词汇的重要性

这样说它几乎没有夸大了语言的力量那就是词汇他们确实已经改变了并将继续改变世界历史的进程。可能我们为了学生今后的成功不仅仅只是在教育上而更多的是在日常生活中而教给学生最伟大的工具就是一个强大的丰富的词汇以及运用这些词汇的技巧。在当今复杂的社会和经济世界的背景下我们的能力很大程度上受到我们的语言技能和词汇知识的影响。不仅如此，除了词汇是生活中成功的至关重要的因素，如果一个人拥有大量的词汇那么它将预测和反射高水平的阅读成绩。在nationalreading小组的报告（2000）中例如得出结论，“词汇知识的重要性已在阅读技能发展上被认可。早在1924年初，研究人员指出，阅读能力的增长依赖于不断增长的知识”（4页–15）。

阅读词汇

年幼的孩子们会很自然地在听和说的过程中学会交流。为了使阅读和写作沟通的过渡，他们需要一个大量的词汇和有效的解码技能。大量的研究证据表明，一个有效的解码策略，让学生不仅能识别单词准确同时这样做能够更加自动、快速（Pikulski and Chard,2003）。鉴于本文的重点，我们将不会试图回顾这个复杂的话题。然而，我们也觉得这是一个方面同时获悉简要地址译码至关重要的就是：高频词汇的阅读积累。

而那些高频词汇词就是指那些在我们生活或者学习中我们反复使用的词汇以及对于我们的通信有重要意义的文化词汇。几乎100个单词就占了大多数英语试卷的二分之一；在第三阶段的时候200个左右的单词就能组成一篇写作的材料；在九年级的时候能在500个字的材料中运用自如。如果一个读者能较为流畅地阅读，那就证明了这些词已经被系统地高效地教学过了。根据EHRI的研究（1994，1998）表明，高频词在教学的时候应该避免先避免书写先让学生专注于他们的视觉组成，对这个高频词在头脑中有初步的印象，接着让他们有一个适当水平的挑战材料，让他们练习几次为了让读者从直观的认识到主观的发展，换句话说，在眼前，虽然这些词并不完全符合语音的概括，但是他们仍然经常做有规律的元素。例如，有W的规则就是它的的字有时有/ Z /声音。EHRI的研究强烈表明，词汇教学就是利用这些语音规律记忆单词，而不是期待学生会记住这个词的模糊的形状，仅仅只是作为传统教学的闪存卡而存在。

词汇之间的关联

毫无疑问一个人如果在说的方面具有一个丰富的词汇，那么很显然在听、说、读、写上都具有较为丰富的积累；同样的道理如果一个人在以上的某一方面比较薄弱的话那么相应的在其他几个环节中也会显露出相应的薄弱的地方。但是我们可以发现这种关联不存在学龄前孩子的教育上。同时，一些孩子在不断扩充自己的词汇丰富自己的词汇的时候如果没有老师的帮助和引导下可能在写作中并不会运用他们所学到的词汇。然而，在这些年中不管发展读者和作家，都发现这四个方面听，说，读，写之间有着越来越高的关系，从中着重培养一方面以带动另一方面。因此，一个教师的责任就是帮助孩子培养转移词汇的能力能从一种形式转化成另一种形式。

词汇语言发展的关键期在学龄前的儿童

斯卡伯勒（2001）的评论非常有说服力。他的证据显示儿童进入幼儿园的时候如果在语言技能上显示出弱势，那么在今后的学习中可能会遇到阅读困难。哈特和里斯利（1995）进行了认真，深入的研究发现早期语言发展和父母的社会经济地位的巨大差异有一定的关联，非凡的变化就是在父母与孩子之间的家庭数量变化的发现。在极端的情况下对比，一个出生在一个高经济收入家庭的儿童比出生在一个贫困的家庭的儿童多了16倍的语言刺激环境。而这些语言的经验就会直接影响儿童语言发展的差异。从父母的受教育程度来讲高收入家庭的儿童累计约1100字的词汇，而那些来自工人阶级家庭的约650字，至于那些福利家庭的则刚刚超过400字。这些差异使得同样年龄之间的儿童词汇量有很大的差别。（250）最近这几年farcus（2001）提出了类似相关的研究数据。在他的调查研究报告中他发现，当孩子们在幼儿园时出现语言发育落后的现象的时候，在之后只要对其产生更大的语言刺激，其语言的差距将不再扩大。然而与此同时，他也发现虽然差距没有扩大，但是也不缩小。很多研究调查都证实了这一点比如巴内特（2001）就认为，如果在在早期的语言发展的时候就让孩子克服这些先天局限性是可能的。然而，如Beck等人（2002）和JUEL等人（2003）清楚地表明，没有足够的工作正在我们的学校计划和实施着来帮助那些语言和词汇较为薄弱的孩子们进入学校。而我们能从中得出的结论就是虽然这些孩子们在学校有较多的口头语言刺激，但是由于语言刺激的太偶然和不够直接对其词汇和语言的发展有重大的影响。

教学词汇的一种有效的方法

孩子们每年需要获得的词汇数量是一个惊人的范围，估计约为3000字一年。不仅如此，一个全面的方法还包括以下这些步骤：

1、运用大声朗读的教育理念。

2、提供形近、义近的单词群引导学生在单词群中直接获得单词的概念和特点。

3、在教学的时候，系统地教给学生前缀，后缀和词根的意思。

4、把拼写、阅读与词汇教学结合在一起进行教学。

5、高效地进行教学比如合理地使用词典，辞典，和其他参考书籍等。

6、教，模型，和鼓励是一种词汇学习策略的应用。

7、鼓励广泛的阅读。

8、在学习语言的时候创建一个情景以激发学生学习语言文字浓厚的兴趣。

部编语文二年级上册词语(叠词)复习公开课教学设计

二年级上册词语（叠词）专项复习 教学目标： １.复习各类特殊词语（如ABB、ABAB、AABB、ABAC等类型） ２.并能熟练、正确写出3~4个同类词语。 ３.能举一反三，列出更多的相关知识点。 教学重点： 通过复习将所学叠词进一步巩固、积累，达到熟能生巧，能举一反三，灵活运用。 教学方法：游戏教学法、自主、合作、小组竞争方式相结合、教师适时点拨指导。 教学准备：课件、卡纸、练习题。 教学过程： 一、情境导入 1.今天早上刁老师收到一封来自词语王国的邀请函，说要邀请词语小王子和词语小公主到他们王国参加游园会，但是呢，想获得“词语小王子”和“词语小公主”称号，要翻过四座山，闯过每座山上的闯关游戏哦。你们敢挑战吗？ 2.那咱们赶紧上山去。唱《大王叫我来巡山》。（贴课题《词语复习》） 二、我的发现 1.自由地读一读，说一说你的发现。 2.指名回答。 3.老师这里有一些词语，谁能像刚刚那样帮我分一分类。（请两名学生贴一贴），如果贴对大家就读两次。 三、第一关：智力钓鱼——ABB式词语 1.游戏规则：说一个ABB词语,就能成功钓上一条鱼。 2.师示范，指名说。 三、第二关：火眼金睛 1.和同桌读一读，说说你的发现。 2.指名回答-女生读AABB词语，男生读ABAB。 2.（出示我会说）四人小组合作学习，看例子，一人说一个，四人小组长分工。讨论完毕再齐读一次。 四、练习巩固

1.同学们已经顺利闯下两关，现在请同学们打出练习纸，完成第一至三题，每题写2个就算过关，写完和同桌对一对，再给四人小组长检查。 2.练习时间，点音乐（5分钟）展示1-2组四人小组的练习卷。（） 3.老师示范评论，我很喜欢这份作业，卷面，书写工整。 4.小小评论家，谁来当？ 五、第三关：看图说词语——ABAB式的词语 1.出示游戏规则：请你用ABAB式的词语描述你看到的图片。 2.出示图片（荷叶、稻谷、辣椒）拓展：碧绿碧绿的（）金黄金黄的（）、火红火红的（） 五、第四关：跳房子——ABAC式词语 1.游戏规则：说出一个ABAC式词语者可向前跳一步。ABAC我们最常用的有“……来……去”、“又……又……” 3.你可以自己一个人说，可以和同桌一起说，也可以四人小组一起完成跳房子游戏。（提醒：例如西瓜，可以从大小，颜色，味道，气味等说一说） 4.请四个组说。 五、做练习。 1.又领到任务卡了，请同学们们拿出练习卷完成第四题，一共有三小题，每小题写两个词，同桌互相改一改。 2.展示2组同桌（小小评论家，谁来当？） 六、拓展综合运用 1.挑你最喜欢的水果和你的四人小组说一说吧，用上今天学的词语形式啊，例如刁老师喜欢吃樱桃，我可以说：又红又甜的樱桃。 2.出示一段话，请我们的词语小王子和小公主填一填。（请两个同学说） 七、布置作业 1.同学们，本节课，我们把ABB、AABB、ABAB、ABAC式的词语复习了一遍。希望同学们课后继续在词语王国游玩，交更多的词语朋友好吗？再唱一唱巡山歌。 2.布置作业。

关于现代工业机械手外文文献翻译@中英文翻译@外文翻译

附录 About Modenr Industrial Manipulayor Robot is a type of mechantronics equipment which synthesizes the last research achievement of engine and precision engine, micro-electronics and computer, automation control and drive, sensor and message dispose and artificial intelligence and so on. With the development of economic and the demand for automation control, robot technology is developed quickly and all types of the robots products are come into being. The practicality use of robot not only solves the problems which are difficult to operate for human being, but also advances the industrial automation program. Modern industrial robots are true marvels of engineering. A robot the size of a person can easily carry a load over one hundred pounds and move it very quickly with a repeatability of 0.006inches. Furthermore these robots can do that 24hours a day for years on end with no failures whatsoever. Though they are reprogrammable, in many applications they are programmed once and then repeat that exact same task for years. At present, the research and development of robot involves several kinds of technology and the robot system configuration is so complex that the cost at large is high which to a certain extent limit the robot abroad use. To development economic practicality and high reliability robot system will be value to robot social application and economy development. With he rapid progress with the control economy and expanding of the modern cities, the let of sewage is increasing quickly; with the development of modern technology and the enhancement of consciousness about environment reserve, more and more people realized

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我们日常教学活动离不开词汇教学，往往在词汇教学上耽误的时间不少，却收效甚微。提高单词的记忆效率非常关键。关于词汇教学，首先要划分词汇的掌握层次，减轻学生的学习负担，避免眉毛胡子一把抓，不分主次地统统要求默写；其次，无论在哪个层次的要求都要提供真实、丰富而又有趣的语境，可以是图片、实物、视频等形象语境，也可以是与生活密切相关的话题，以此来强化对新学词汇的接受，培养学生用英语思维的良好习惯，多方面掌握新接触到的词汇。让词汇教学和学习的过程，既妙趣横生、充满期待，又水到渠成，自然过渡，不会增加学生的学习压力。事半功倍。 我的关于《My new neighbor》的词汇教学设计思路 教学目标：理解neighbor、fold、attach在文中的含义 熟练掌握lonely、basket、fill在文中的含义并能熟练运用 设计思路及意图： 一、Guessing game 利用实物导入单词basket的学习。让学生猜一猜“What’s in the basket?”并出示音标，反复跟读、朗读。实物导入形象生动，让学生猜测里面的东西，吸引学生注意力，激发学生的积极性，活跃课堂气氛。 二、Show a paper plane, teach students how to fold paper into a beatiful plane.

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对外汉语词汇教学开题报告

开题报告 一、课题名称：论对外汉语词汇教学的方法 二、课题研究的背景 赵元任先生说过：“一个语言里头最任意的部分就是它的词汇。”正是由于这个“最任意”，在第二语言学习中，难度最大的也是词汇。在对外汉语课堂教学体系中，词汇教学占有非常重要的地位。词汇的学习是学生掌握和扩大词汇量必不可少的途径，同时也是学生学习和理解课文的前提。词汇是语言的建筑材料也是语音、语义和语法的载体。因此，词汇教学是对外汉语教学的核心内容。词汇教学不仅仅是要留学生理解字典中的解释，更重要的是让学生理解词的用法以及词语背后所涉及的文化意义。所以，对外汉语词汇教学的目的就是培养外国学生识词、辨词、选词、用词的能力，培养他们理解和表达的能力。而在实际的教学中，词汇教学一直没有得到应有的重视，始终处于相对薄弱的地位。对外汉语教师在教学中忽视了语境教学，使学生无法准确理解词语的附加色彩，在运用过程中不符合语体或者不符合汉语的表达习惯，有的违反了汉民族的文化心理，有的不符合中国人的礼貌。这样一来，留学生的表达不但让人听起来感觉别扭，甚至有时会闹出笑话，引起不必要的误会。因此，提出一些切实可行的方法和技巧是词汇教学的当务之急。 长期以来，国内外的第二语言教学都把主要的精力放在语言结构上，直到70年代才把词汇放到较重要的位置上。随着“汉语热”的不断升温，对于教学方法的讨论也是如火如荼。目前词汇教学的方法主要有两种：词本位教学法和句本位教学法。二者的分歧点在于是看重整体还是看重部分。诚然，一个词的句法功能只有在实际的句子中才能体现出来，因此不能孤立地以词解词，而是要把词放在句子中，放到课文中去理解；同时解释一个词也不能忽略词本身的词音、词形和词义。除上述两种教学法以外，还有一种语素教学法。语素教学法能收到举一反三的效果，但是其本身也有很大的缺陷。因此，对外汉语词汇教学法研究的重点应该是如何最大限度地发挥各个教学法的优点，规避不足之处。 三、课题研究的意义 1.通过对词汇教学方法的探讨，帮助留学生掌握词语的形、音、义和基本用法，培养在语言交际中对词语的正确理解能力和语言表达能力。同时，帮助留学生掌握词语的文化内涵和词语在不同情景和功能中附加色彩的变化，从而使留学生具备在不同情景和功能中对词语的限制和选择的能力，以及区别词语之间语义差别的能力。

人工智能专业外文翻译-机器人

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EXPERT SYSTEMS AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Expert Systems are computer programs that are derived from a branch of computer science research called Artificial Intelligence (AI). AI's scientific goal is to understand intelligence by building computer programs that exhibit intelligent behavior. It is concerned with the concepts and methods of symbolic inference, or reasoning, by a computer, and how the knowledge used to make those inferences will be represented inside the machine. Of course, the term intelligence covers many cognitive skills, including the ability to solve problems, learn, and understand language; AI addresses all of those. But most progress to date in AI has been made in the area of problem solving -- concepts and methods for building programs that reason about problems rather than calculate a solution. AI programs that achieve expert-level competence in solving problems in task areas by bringing to bear a body of knowledge about specific tasks are called knowledge-based or expert systems. Often, the term expert systems is reserved for programs whose knowledge base contains the knowledge used by human experts, in contrast to knowledge gathered from textbooks or non-experts. More often than not, the two terms, expert systems (ES) and knowledge-based systems (KBS), are used synonymously. Taken together, they represent the most widespread type of AI application. The area of human intellectual endeavor to be captured in an expert system is called the task domain. Task refers to some goal-oriented, problem-solving activity. Domain refers to the area within which the task is being performed. Typical tasks are diagnosis, planning, scheduling, configuration and design. An example of a task domain is aircraft crew scheduling, discussed in Chapter 2. Building an expert system is known as knowledge engineering and its practitioners are called knowledge engineers. The knowledge engineer must make sure that the computer has all the knowledge needed to solve a problem. The knowledge engineer must choose one or more forms in which to represent the required knowledge as symbol patterns in the memory of the computer -- that is, he (or she) must choose a knowledge representation. He must also ensure that the computer can use the knowledge efficiently by selecting from a handful of reasoning methods. The practice of knowledge engineering is described later. We first describe the components of expert systems. The Building Blocks of Expert Systems Every expert system consists of two principal parts: the knowledge base; and the reasoning, or inference, engine.

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