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托福TPO52 三篇阅读翻译!!倒序!!

托福TPO52 三篇阅读翻译!!倒序!!
托福TPO52 三篇阅读翻译!!倒序!!

3.Early Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa

在更新世末期(大约公元前10000年),食品生产的技术可能已经在非洲西部和中部

的热带雨林的边缘地区使用,在那里非洲山药等根茎型植物的普遍使用,使人们认识到自己种植食物的好处。这种原始形式的“蔬菜栽培”(块根植物和树本作物的种植)可

能已经成为了一种经济传统,基于这种传统,夏季降水谷类作物的种植也采用嫁接的办法,这种种植技术已经在撒哈拉沙漠南部边界地区的草原南部被使用。随着撒哈拉

沙漠在公元前5000年之后干涸,游牧民族(牧民)向南沿着主要河道迁移到了西非和苏丹的热带草原地带。

直到公元前3000年,正如埃及文明发源于尼罗河流域一样,这些游牧民族定居在了离南部很远的东非高原地区的中心。东非高原是理想的养牛场所,如今也是像马赛人(肯尼亚和坦桑尼亚的游牧狩猎民族)这样的有名的牧牛民族的家园。直到大约公元前3300

年,第一批牧牛人出现时,高地上居住着狩猎采集者,他们居住在平原附近的山区。和其他地方的情况一样,在非洲,牛是饲养起来很费劲的动物。如果要饲养各种规模

的牛群的话,这些牛至少每24小时就需要喝一次水,而且需要大片的牧场。饲养的秘

诀在于仔细挑选放牧场地,尤其是在季节性降雨会导致全年牧草质量有明显差异的环境中。即使是规模适中的牛群也需要大片的土地和相当大的可移动性。为了获得这样的土地,经常需要牛群移动相当远的距离,甚至是从夏季牧场移动到冬季牧场。同时,放牧人不得不让牲畜在有舌蝇出没的地带吃草。唯一能够保护人类和牲畜,不患上昏

睡病(一种由舌蝇传播的疾病)的办法,就是避免在这些地区定居或者放牧——对非

洲东部和中部地区的牧民来说,这个办法严重地限制了他们的迁移。结果是,小牛群迅速地向南部地区迁移,在那里人们可以放牧。在谷类农业占领最南部的撒哈拉沙漠之前,非洲东部和南部稀树草原地区的一些依靠狩猎和采集生活的人可能已经饲养了牛群和其他家养动物,他们将牲畜作为礼物交换,或者通过劫掠放牧的邻居,来获得这些牲畜。

和主流观点相反:没有所谓的“纯粹”的牧民,即只依靠牧群生存的社会。撒哈拉沙漠地

区为了躲避干旱而向南迁移的牧民,几乎肯定的是他们也在种植高粱、小米和其他热带降雨作物。到公元前1500年,谷类作物已经广泛分布于整个撒哈拉沙漠南部的稀树

草原带。小型农业社区遍布在草原和西非东部森林的边界处,这些小型农业社区都依赖于所谓的轮耕法。这种形式的农业包括清理林地,焚烧清理过的地块上的那些被砍倒的灌木丛,将灰烬混合在土壤中,然后在这些制备好的土地上耕种。几年后,土地耗尽了养分,于是农民们继续前进,开辟新的林地,让原来的荒地休耕。轮耕法,也

被称为“刀耕火种”,高度适用于没有犁的稀树草原地区的农民,因为这种方法能够消耗

最少的能量。

在不知情者的眼中,清除林地和燃烧林地的过程看似是随意的,但事实并非如此。

来种植谷类。除了在耕种条件较好的地区,比如经常被水淹没的河漫滩地区:热带非洲的土壤的肥力只在中等水平甚至肥力很低。农业的艺术就在于小心地选择土地,那就是说,知道哪些土壤是轻土壤,容易耕种,很容易用小锄头翻种,并且可以在经过几年的耕种之后,仍然保持它的肥力,因为谷类植物会迅速地消耗氮和土壤中其他的养分。一旦谷类植物被种植,刀耕火种的农业会迅速扩大其范围,就如同在新土地上出现一个又一个的村落一样,轮耕农业会迅速地发展,以至于一个专家估计它仅仅只

用了两个世纪的时间,就覆盖了从非洲东部到南部2000公里范围的土地。

2.Natufian Culture

在大约12500年到10200年之前,纳图夫文明时期的考古记录中,我们可以看到农业起源的明确证据,纳图夫位于中东的一个被称为累范特的地区——大约在地中海东部,

阿拉伯半岛的北部

纳图夫人的石器包含许多镰刀状的刀片,这些刀片显示出了收割谷物的磨耗特征。

同时,手推石磨和其他被用来加工谷物的石器在纳图夫遗址中大量出现,并且很多这样的石器都显示出了长期、集约利用的痕迹。和镰状刀片一起出现的还有很多研磨石,它们主要是石灰石或玄武岩制成的研钵和杵。也有证据表明,这些沉重的研磨石是从

很远的地方运过来的,某些情况下运输距离可能超过30公里,这不是目前已知的早期

人类能做到的事情。用于使渔网下沉的鱼钩和砝码证明鱼类在一些地区的饮食结构中变得越来越重要。石头容器表明了人们对容器需求的增加,但是没有证据表明纳图夫人用黏土或陶土制作器皿。对纳图夫人牙齿的研究也强有力地表明这些人专门收集谷物并且可能会种植谷物,或正处于驯化作物的过程中,但是纳图夫人也仍然是狩猎者,他们会在一些植被更繁茂的地区集中猎杀羚羊和鹿,在较为干旱的地区猎杀野山羊和马。

纳图夫人有着和他们祖先不同的聚居模式。他们的一些营地要比以前的任何营地都大

得多(超过1000平方米),而且他们有可能在一些营地住上超过半年,甚至是更长的

时间。在一些营地里,人们用石灰石岩块搭建了地基和其他建筑构件。贝壳、黑曜石以及其他商品的贸易在不断增长,人类学家们猜测易腐食品的交换(例如兽皮和食物)以及盐的交换也在不断增长。随着野生谷物在日常饮食中的重要性日益增加,食盐可能第一次几乎成为一种必需品:吃很多肉的人可以从肉类中获取必要的盐分,但是以谷物为食的可能会导致盐分的缺乏。在早期的村庄里,盐可能是一种重要的食品防腐剂。

一如既往地,一个重大的文化变革不仅仅是由简单的经济的变化所造成的。纳图夫人用很多材料制作了(可能穿戴了)小珠子和垂饰,包括宝石和海里的贝壳,这些材料都需要进口才能获得,可能这些装饰品事实上反映了民族认同感的增强,或者反映了身份和族群地位上的一些不同。巧妙雕刻的动物、女人以及其他物品的塑像出现在了

许多纳图夫遗址中,纳图夫时期的洞穴壁画曾在安纳托利亚、叙利亚和伊朗被发现。超过400座纳图夫人的墓葬被发现,其中大多数都是建在楼层里的简单的坟墓。据考古学家Belfer-Cohen记载,这些墓葬可能反映出了一种祖先崇拜,团队意识情感纽带

的增强以及对特殊地区的一种依赖性,直到纳图夫时代后期,这里的人们才将生活区和墓葬区严格地区分开。与累范特的更新世文化相比,纳图夫文化好像经历了更大的社会变化。

关于为什么纳图夫人与他们的祖先有着这样或那样的不同,以及他们为什么身先士卒将农耕作为一种生活方式,至今仍然是个谜。当然,天气变化是一个原因,越来越严重的干旱以及人口密度的增长可能迫使他们加强对谷物的开发利用,这转而可能会促进镰刀、其他工具以及使农业变得高效化的永久群落的发展。但是人们还不清楚这些因素具体是什么时候与其他起作用的因素发生相互影响的。

1.Stream Deposit

一条大而湍急的溪流或河流可以携带各种大小的颗粒,小到粘土,大到巨石。当水流放缓的时候,其携带能力(能够携带的颗粒量)会减弱,最大的颗粒会沉淀在河床上。

如果水流的速度继续减弱——比如洪水消退时——更细的颗粒会沉淀在大颗粒上。因

此,溪流按大小将沉积物分类。洪水消退时最先可能会沉积一层砾石,接着沙子会覆盖在砾石之上,最后淤泥和黏土会覆盖在最上面。河流也会沿着下游的方向将沉淀物分类。许多山间的溪流会被巨砾和鹅卵石阻塞,但在更远处的下游,三角洲主要是由细泥和黏土堆积成的。这种顺流而下的分类是很奇妙的,因为河流的速度通常在下游方向加快。水流的携带能力随着流速的加快而提升,因此一条河流可以输送的颗粒应该比它的支流所携带的颗粒更大。对这种顺流而下分类的一种解释是,随着沉淀物年复一年地向下游移动,水流的摩擦力将巨砾和卵石磨成了沙子和淤泥。因此,只有细泥沙能到达大多数河流的下游。

一条河流会在三种环境下发生沉淀:在河流进入平原、湖泊或大海的时候,河流坡度(倾斜的角度)会突然下降,在那些地方会形成冲积扇和三角洲;河漫滩沉积物会堆积在河道附近的漫滩上;河流内部也会形成河道沉积物。砂坝,即细长条的泥沙堆积物,是河流内部和河流两岸所形成的沉淀物的瞬态特征。砂坝通常在一年内形成,下一年就会被消磨掉。用于通商航行的河道必须频繁地修整,因为砂坝每年都会变。

想象一条蜿蜒的河流。河流会对其外围的河岸造成侵蚀,因为水流的惯性驱使河流冲向河岸。与此同时,河流内部较缓的水流会沉淀砂石,形成一个点坝。河心沙洲是在河道中央形成的,由沙子和碎石组成的沉积物。

大多数河流是单河道。相反,辫状河由很多浅的、互相连接的河道组成。当河流携带更多的泥沙,泥沙量超出河流的携带能力的时候,这些地方就会形成辫状河。河流会卸下多余的泥沙,形成河心沙洲。沙洲会渐渐填满河道,迫使水流溢出堤岸,侵蚀出新的河道。其结果是,辫状河在多个河道同时流动,并在河漫滩上来回流动。辫状河

在沙漠和冰川环境中都很常见,因为沙漠和冰川都能产生大量的沉淀物。沙漠能产生大量沉积物,因为它几乎没有或者根本没有植被来防止其被侵蚀。冰川将基岩研磨成细小的沉积物,这些沉淀物会被冰川融化后形成的水流所携带。如果一条陡峭的山溪流到平坦的平原上,它的坡度和速度就会急剧下降。结果,它会把大部分的泥沙沉淀下来,形成一个扇形土丘,被称为冲积扇。冲积扇在许多干旱、半干旱的山区很常见。当河流汇入湖泊或海洋中的静水时,水流速度也会骤然减慢。泥沙会沉淀下来,形成一个近乎平坦的地貌,被称为三角洲。三角洲的一部分在水面之上,而剩余的部分略

微低于水面。三角洲通常为扇形,形状和希腊字母“?”很类似。三角洲和冲积扇都变化

得很快。沉积物会填满河道(水道),然后这些河道就会被废弃,而新的河道就会像辫状河那样形成。结果是,一条形成三角洲或冲积扇的河流会分裂成多条河流,这些河流被称为支流。一个大三角洲可能会以这种方式延展开,直到占地数千平方公里。然而,大多数冲积扇,规模要小得多,覆盖一平方公里至几平方公里的小片土地。过

去的5000到6000年内,密西西比河流经之处,已经形成了7个三角洲。但是近年来,

工程师们建造了堤坝(挡土墙)系统以试图加固河道。

托福写作-翻译句子练习

中文: 1. 旅游业不但给政府带来税收而且给很多人提供了就业机会。 2. 赌博不但对健康有害,而且会影响家庭和睦。 3. 打工不但能让学生赚零花钱,而且还能让他们学到人际交往的能力。 4. 现在很多学校的校服不但贵,而且还难看,质量不好。 5. 政府不但要多建一些公路,还要鼓励人们多使用公交车。 6. 老人们既不需要很多的钱,也不需要很大的房子,他们最需要的是子女的关心和照顾。 7. 我喜欢旅游,但是,我既没有钱,也没有时间。 8. 在老人院,老人既能够接受到医疗,又能够找到很多有共同话题,共同兴趣的的伙伴。 9. 缴税既是有有利于国家,也是有利于个人。因为政府的税收主要用于公共服务,这个是每个人都会受益的。 10. 打电脑游戏既浪费时间,又有害视力。 11. 打电脑游戏既能使人放松,又能锻炼大脑的灵活性,反映能力 12. 依照最近的一项调查,每年有4,000,000人死

于与吸烟有关的疾病。 13. 没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。 14. 许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。 15. 无可否认,空气污染是一个极其严重的问题:城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它。 16. 考虑到问题的严重性,在事态进一步恶化之前,必须采取有效的措施。 17. 尽管这一观点被广泛接受,很少有证据表明飞机会造成灾难性的污染。 18. 没有人能否认:教育是人生最重要的一方面。 19. 事实上,我们必须承认生命的质量和生命本身一样重要。 20. 我们应该不遗余力地保护我们的环境。 21. 现在,人们普遍认为 22. 我同意后者,有如下理由: 23. 这一观点正受到越来越多人的质疑。 24. 使用自行车有助于人们的身体健康,并极大地缓解了交通阻塞。 25. 尽管自行车有许多明显的优点,但是它也存在它的问题。 26. 在速度和舒适度方面,自行车是无法和汽车、火

2001年1月老托福阅读解析第二篇

2001年1月第二篇 Questions 10-17 at least one carpenter, joiner, sawyer, and cooper in woodworking; a weaver and a tailor 5) an assistant, the rural artisan provided the neighborhood with common goods from furniture to shoes to farm equipment in exchange for cash or for “goods in kind” from the customer’s field, pasture, or dairy. Sometimes artisans transformed material provided by the customer wove cloth of yam spun at the farm from the wool of the family sheep; made chairs or tables 10) from wood cut in the customer’s own woodlot; produced shoes or leather breeches from cow, deer, or sheepskin tanned on the farm. Like their farming neighbors, rural artisans were part of an economy seen, by one historian, as “an orchestra conducted by nature.” Some tasks could not be done in the winter, other had to be put off during harvest time, and still others waited on raw materials that were 15) only produced seasonally. As the days grew shorter, shop hours kept pace, since few artisans could afford enough artificial light to continue work when the Sun went down. To the best of their ability, colonial artisans tried to keep their shops as efficient as possible and to regularize their schedules and methods of production for the best return on their investment in time, tools, and materials. While it is pleasant to imagine a woodworker, for example, 20) carefully matching lumber, joining a chest together without resort to nails or glue, and applying all thought and energy to carving beautiful designs on the finished piece, the time required was not justified unless the customer was willing to pay extra for the quality— and few in rural areas were, Artisans, therefore, often found it necessary to employ as many shortcuts and economics as possible while still producing satisfactory products.

托福阅读难句专业翻译一

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托福阅读分数对照表

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