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chemistry SAT2

chemistry SAT2
chemistry SAT2

Honors Chemistry / SAT II

Table of Contents

I. STRUCTURE OF MATTER

1. Matter

A. Substances

i. Elements (1)

ii. Compounds (2)

B. Mixtures (4)

2. Atomic Theory and Structure

A. Development of Atomic Theory

i. Empty Space Concept (6)

ii. Bohr's Model (7)

iii. Spectral Lines (9)

B. Orbital Model of the Atom

i. Quantum Energy Levels (10)

ii. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (11)

iii. Electron Configurations (12)

iv. Valence Electrons (17)

v. Lewis Electron Diagrams (19)

C. Quantum Numbers

i. Properties (20)

D. Atomic Masses

i. Atomic Mass/Mass Number (21)

ii. Atomic Number (24)

iii. Isotopes (26)

iv. The Nucleus (28)

E. Electrons and Ions

i. Electrons and Ions (31)

ii. Ions (33)

iii. Ionization Energy (36)

F. Subatomic Particles

i. Properties (37)

ii. Masses (37)

iii. AZX Convention (38)

3. Periodic Relationships

A. Development of the Periodic Table

i. Periodic Law (39)

B. Structure of the Periodic Table

i. Columns (Groups) (40)

ii. Rows (Periods) (42)

C. Properties of Elements

i. Covalent Atomic Radius (43)

ii. Ionic Radius (46)

iii. Ionization Energy (48)

iv. Oxidation States (55)

v. Electron Affinity…………………………………………………………

vi. Electronegativity (56)

vii. Metals (59)

viii. Nonmetals

a. Properties (60)

b. Monatomic Molecules (61)

ix. Metalloids (62)

x. Phases (62)

D. Chemistry of Groups

i. Groups IA, IIA, and IIIA (63)

ii. Groups IVA, VA, and VIA (66)

iii. Group VIIA (67)

iv. Group 0 (68)

v. Tansition Metals (69)

E. Chemistry of Periods (70)

4. Chemical Bonding

A. The Nature of Chemical Bonding

i. Chemical Energy (70)

ii. Bonding and Stability (72)

iii. Electronegativity (74)

iv. Bond Length (77)

B. Bond Types

i. Ionic Bonds (78)

ii. Covalent Bonds

a. Nonpolar Covalent (83)

b. Polar Covalent (84)

c. Coordinate Covalent (85)

d. Network (87)

iii. Metallic Bonds (88)

C. Polarity (91)

D. Molecular Attraction

i. Dipoles (92)

ii. Hydrogen Bonding (94)

iii. Van der Waals Forces (98)

iv. Molecule-Ion Attraction (101)

E. Molecular Structure

i. Lewis Structures.................................................................. 102 ii. Formal Charge.................................................................. 107 iii. Resonance........................................................................ 108 iv. Hybridization..................................................................... 108 v. Geometry and VSEPR......................................................... 109 vi. Sigma and Pi Bonds............................................................112 F. Properties of Substances (113)

5. Chemical Compounds

A. Formulas

i. Molecular........................................................................... 114 ii. Empirical........................................................................... 115 B. Naming Compounds.................................................................. 116 C. Writing Formulas........................................................................ 119 D. Balancing Chemical Equations (125)

6. Nuclear Decay

A. Emanations

i. Alpha Decay……………………………………………………………… 129 ii. Beta Decay……………………………………………………………… 130 iii. Gamma radiation……………………………………………………… 132 iv. Separating Emanations……………………………………………… 132 B. Half-Life

i. Half-Life…………………………………………………………………… 134 C. Mass-Energy Equivalence

i. Nuclear Binding Energy...................................................... 136 ii. Mass Defect (137)

7. Relationship Analysis Questions (138)

II. STATES OF MATTER

1. Gases

A. Ideal Gas Laws

i. Standard Temperature and Pressure.......................................ii. Boyle's Law (115)

iii. Charles' Law…………………………………………………………… 158 iv. Partial Pressures……………………………………………………… 160 v. Combined Gas Law…………………………………………………… 161 vi. Graham's Law………………………………………………………… 162 B. Kinetic-Molecular Theory

i. Theory.............................................................................. 163 ii. The Mole Concept............................................................... 167 iii. Temperature..................................................................... 170 iv. Average Molecular Speed................................................... 171 v. Deviations (172)

56 155

C. Measurement

i. Barometers and Manometers (172)

2. Liquids and Solids

A. Kinetic-Molecular Theory (174)

B. Phase Changes

i. Boiling Point (174)

ii. Heat of Vaporization (175)

iii. Vapor Pressure (176)

iv. Melting Point (177)

v. Heat of Fusion (180)

vi. Sublimation (181)

C. Phase Diagrams (182)

D. Solid Structures

i. Crystals (185)

ii. Network Solids (186)

3. Solutions

A. Solubility

i. Saturated/Unsaturated (189)

ii. Dilute/Concentrated (195)

B. Concentration

i. Molarity (197)

ii. Molality (203)

iii. Mole Fraction (204)

iv. Mass Percent (204)

C. Colligative Properties

i. Boiling Point Elevation (205)

ii. Freezing Point Depression (206)

4. Relationship Analysis Questions (207)

III. REACTIONS

1. General

A. Conservations Law

i. Conservation of Mass (217)

B. Products and Reactants

i. Limiting Reagents (217)

ii. Percent Yield (218)

C. Single Displacement Reactions (218)

2. Acids and Bases

A. Electrolytes (219)

B. Arrhenius Theory

i. Acids (220)

ii. Bases (222)

C. Bronsted-Lowry Theory

i. Acids (223)

ii. Bases (226)

D. Lewis Theory (228)

E. Naming Acids (228)

F. Strong vs. Weak

i. Acids (229)

ii. Bases (229)

G. Amphiprotic Substances (230)

H. Indicators

i. Acid/Neutral Indicators (231)

ii. Base Indicators (235)

I. Reactions

i. Neutralization

a. Titration (238)

b. Salts and Endpoints (243)

ii. Conjugates and Buffers (246)

iii. Hydrolysis (252)

J. Ionization Constants

i. Kw (256)

ii. pH (261)

iii. Ka (266)

3. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

A. Oxidation (Reducing Agents) (279)

B. Reduction (Oxidizing Agents) (280)

C. Oxidation Number (281)

4. Electrochemistry

A. Half Cells

i. Half Reactions (282)

ii. Standard Electrode Potentials (284)

iii. Half Cell Potentials (285)

B. Electrochemical Cells

i. Direction of Electron/Ion Flow (286)

ii. Standard Electrode Potentials (287)

iii. Equilibrium (292)

C. Redox Reactions

i. Oxidizing and Reducing Agents (293)

ii. Balancing Redox Reactions (294)

iii. Identifying Redox Reactions (295)

D. Electrolytic Cells

i. Cell Reactions (296)

ii. Anode (297)

iii. Cathode (297)

5. Relationship Analysis Questions (298)

IV. STOICHIOMETRY

1. The Mole Concept

A. Mole Interpretation (307)

B. Molar Mass (308)

C. Molar Volume of a Gas (312)

D. Gas Density (314)

E. Number of Molecules per Mole (316)

2. Problems Involving Formulas

A. Percent Composition (320)

B. Empirical Formula (324)

C. Molecular Formula (325)

3. Problems Involving Equations

A. Mass Problems (327)

B. Mass-Volume Problems (330)

C. Mole Problems (332)

D. Volume Problems (336)

4. Relationship Analysis Questions (338)

V. EQUILIBRIUM AND KINETICS

1. Dynamic Equilibrium

A. Phase Equilibrium (339)

B. Solution Equilibrium

i. Solubility Product Constant (Ksp) (339)

ii. Common Ion Effect (340)

2. LeChatelier's Principle

A. Effect of a Catalyst (341)

B. Effect of Concentration (341)

C. Effect of Pressure (347)

D. Effect of Temperature (348)

3. Law of Chemical Equilibrium

A. Equilibrium Constant Expressions (349)

B. Concentrations at Equilibrium (354)

4. Role of Energy in Reactions

A. Activation Energy (355)

B. Heat (Enthalpy) of Reaction (357)

C. Potential Energy Diagram (358)

5. Reaction Rates

A. Catalysts (361)

B. Concentration (362)

C. Surface Area (363)

D. Temperature (364)

E. Collision Theory (365)

6. Spontaneity

A. Energy (Enthalpy) (365)

B. Entropy (369)

C. Free Energy (372)

D. Predicting Spontaneous Reactions (373)

7. Relationship Analysis Questions (375)

VI. THERMODYNAMICS

1. Energy

A. Forms of Energy

i. Kinetic Energy (379)

ii. Potential Energy (379)

B. Measurement of Energy

i. Calorie (380)

ii. Thermometry (381)

2. Energy Changes

A. Physical Processes

i. Specific Heat Capacity (382)

B. Chemical Processes

i. Exothermic Reactions (382)

ii. Endothermic Reactions (383)

3. Calorimetry

A. Phase Changes

i. Heat of Vaporization (383)

ii. Heat of Fusion (384)

4. Relationship Analysis Questions (385)

VII. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

1. Artificial Radioactivity

A. Artificial Transmutation (387)

B. Accelerators (388)

2. Nuclear energy

A. Fission Reaction

i. Moderators (388)

ii. Control Rods (388)

iii. Coolants (389)

iv. Shielding (389)

B. Fusion Reaction

i. Fuels (390)

C. Radioactive Wastes (390)

D. Uses of Radioisotopes (391)

3. Relationship Analysis Questions (392)

VIII. DESCRIPTIVE CHEMISTRY

1. Organic Chemistry

A. General Properties

i. Bonding (393)

ii. Structural Formulas (393)

iii. Isomers (394)

iv. Saturated/Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (397)

v. Properties (399)

B. Homologous Series of Hydrocarbons

i. Alkanes (400)

ii. Alkenes (401)

iii. Alkynes (402)

iv. Benzene Series (403)

C. Other Organic Compounds

i. Alcohols

a. Monohydroxy (404)

b. Dihydroxy (406)

c. Trihydroxy (407)

ii. Organic Acids (408)

iii. Aldehydes (410)

iv. Ketones (411)

v. Ethers (412)

vi. Halides (413)

D. Organic Reactions

i. Substitution (415)

ii. Addition (416)

iii. Fermentation (417)

iv. Esterification (418)

v. Organic Oxidation (419)

vi. Polymerization

a. Addition (419)

b. Condensation (420)

2. Industrial Applications

A. Haber Process (420)

B. Petroleum (422)

3. Relationship Analysis Questions (423)

IX. LABORATORY

1. Activities (425)

2. Equipment (426)

3. Measurement (426)

4. Reports (428)

5. Skills (429)

6. Error (430)

7. Relationship Analysis Questions (431)

UNIT I

STRUCTURE

OF MATTER

2159. What is the shell configuration of electrons for neutral

atoms of nickel,

28

Ni, in the ground state?

(A) 2–8–16–2 (D) 2–18–8–0

(B) 2–8–10–8 (E) 2–8–16–28

(C) 2–8–8–10

2161. What is the electron shell configuration for ions

of selenium,

34

Se2– ?

(A) 2–8–18–6 (D) 2–8–18–8

(B) 2–8–18–8–2 (E) 2–8–14–12

(C) 2–8–18–4

2162. What is the electron shell configuration for calcium ions, Ca2+?

(A) 2–8–8–2 (D) 2–8–6

(B) 2–8–8 (E) 2–8–6-2

(C) 2–8–8–4

2477. In the orbital notation 1s2 the coefficient 1 indicates that

(A) helium has 1 electron

(B) helium has an atomic number of 1

(C) helium has an atomic mass of 1

(D) helium has an energy level of 1

(E) helium has 1 neutron

2478. The maximum number of electrons in the second energy level, n = 2, of any atom, is

(A) 8 (D) 4

(B) 2 (E)6

(C) 16

2479. The maximum number of electrons that may be accommodated in the 4th energy level of any atom is

(A) 4 (D) 16

(B) 8 (E) 32

(C) 12

2480. The maximum number of electrons which can occupy the 3rd energy level of any atom is

(A) 2 (D) 12

(B) 8 (E) 18

(C) 9

2481. The maximum number of electrons which can occupy the 1st principal energy level of any atom is

(A) 8 (D) 18

(B) 2 (E) 4

(C) 10 2482. The Bohr energy shell representation for a neutral atom of sulfur, 32 16S, is

(A)

(D)

(B)

(E)

(C)

2483. “The atom consists of a nucleus containing subatomic particles and electrons arranged in concentric shells around the nucleus.” This description most clearly fits the atomic

theory proposed by

(A) Bohr (D) Thomson

(B) Rutherford (E) Avogadro

(C) Dalton

2487. The maximum number of electrons possible in the second energy level of an atom is

(A) 8 (D) 18

(B) 2 (E)6

(C) 10

2488. The maximum numbers of electrons in the K, L, M, and N shells of any element are respectively

(A) 1, 2, 8, 16 (D) 2, 8, 18, 32

(B) 1, 4, 9, 16 (E) 2, 6, 10, 14

(C) 2, 8, 16, 24

2138. When an electron moves from the level where n=4 to the

level where n=2, the change in energy is

(A) +246.kJ?mol –1 (D) –307.kJ?mol –1 (B) –246.kJ?mol –1 (E) –656.kJ?mol –1

(C) +307.kJ?mol –1

2139. When an electron moves from the level where n=3 to the

level where n=1, the change in energy is

(A) –874.kJ?mol –1 (D) +1166.kJ?mol –1 (B) +874.kJ?mol –1 (E) + 656.kJ?mol –1

(C) –1166.kJ?mol –1

2140. Movement of an electron from the 5th to the 1st energy

level in an atom is:

(A) exothermic and absorbs energy. (B) exothermic and evolves energy. (C) endothermic and absorbs energy. (D) endothermic and evolves energy. (E) neither exothermic nor endothermic. 2141. Movement of an electron from the 4th to the 8th energy

level in an atom is

(A) exothermic and absorbs energy (B) exothermic and evolves energy (C) endothermic and absorbs energy (D) endothermic and evolves energy (E) neither endothermic nor exothermic 2142. Sunlight, when viewed through a prism or a diffraction

grating, shows all of the colors of visible light. This is an example of a

(A) bright line spectrum (D) visible spectrum (B) continuous spectrum (E) ultraviolet spectrum (C) infrared spectrum

2143. Neon light, when viewed through a prism or a diffraction

grating, shows only certain colors of visible light. This is an example of a

(A) bright line spectrum (D) visible spectrum (B) continuous spectrum (E) absorbtion spectrum (C) infrared spectrum 2264. A single burst of visible light is released by an atom.

Which is an explanation of what happened in the atom? An electron

(A) removed a proton from the nucleus (B) was changed from a particle to a wave

(C) moved from a higher to a lower energy level (D) moved from a lower to a higher energy level (E) was released from the nucleus 2265. What is the mass number of a potassium ion, K +,

consisting of 18 electrons, 19 protons and 20 neutrons? (A) 36 (D) 39 (B) 37 (E) 57 (C) 38 2485. The light from fluorescent lights, when analyzed in a

spectrometer, exhibit the same lines in the yellow, green and blue spectral regions. This is evidence that (A) fluorescent lights contain fluorine gas (B) air is present in all fluorescent lights

(C) there are no gases present in fluorescent lights

(D) the same element is present in all the fluorescent

lights

(E) different elements are present in each fluorescent light 2486. The colors of the spectral emission lines produced by the

gas in a discharge tube are determined by the (A) applied voltage (D) temperature of the gas (B) pressure of the gas (E) applied current (C) gas used in the tube 2989. Which of the following statements are true ?

I. The energy of electromagnetic radiation increases as its frequency increases.

II. The energy of an atom is increased as it emits electromagnetic radiation.

III. An excited atom returns to its ground state by absorbing electromagnetic radiation.

IV. The frequency and wavelength of electromagnetic radiation are inversely proportional.

V. An electron in the n = 3 state in the hydrogen atom can go to the n = 1 state by emitting electromagnetic radiation at the appropriate frequency. (A) II, III, and V only (D) I, IV, and V only (B) III and IV only (E) II, III, and V only (C) I, II, and III only

B.B. Orbital Model of the Atom Orbital Model of the Atom

iii. Electron Configurations

2500. The electronic configuration of the S 2– ion is

(A) ls 22s 22p 63s 23p 2 (D) 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 6 (B) 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 4 (E) 1s 22s 22p 63s 43p 4 (C) 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 5 2501. The atomic number of an element whose electronic

configuration is 1s 22s 22p 1 is (A) 1 (D) 4 (B) 2 (E) 5 (C) 3

2502. Consider the orbital diagram

The species that does not have this orbital occupancy pattern is

(A) 40 18Ar (D) 39 19K

+

(B) 34 16S

(E) 32 16S 2–

(C) 37 17Cl

-2503. The orbital diagram for an atom of sodium, 11Na, in its lowest energy state is (A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E) none of the above.

2504. Consider the orbital diagram.

The species that has this orbital configuration is

(A) 13 7 N (D) 31 15P

3-(B) 27 13Al

(E) None of the above (C) 27 13Al

3+ 2505. Which species has the same number of electrons as the

magnesium ion, Mg 2+? (A) Ca 2+ (D) Ne +

(B) Na +

(E) Ba 2+ (C) F 2506. The species having the same number of electrons as Mg 2+

is

(A) Na (D) Ar

(B) O 2–

(E) Ne 1+ –

(C) N 2507. Which of the species is the most stable?

(A) He(g)

(D) Ne +(g) (B) He +(g)

(E) Xe(g) (C) Ne(g)

2508. Which shell electron configuration is that of the most

reactive nonmetal? (A) 2, 8, 1 (D) 2, 8, 8 (B) 2, 8, 3 (E) 2, 8, 6 (C) 2, 8, 7 2509. How many electrons are usually left out of the condensed

electron dot diagrams of elements with atomic numbers 11 to 18? (A) 8 (D) 12 (B) 2 (E)18 (C) 10 2510. The shell electron configuration of a neutral carbon atom is

(A) 1, 5 (D) 2, 2, 4

(B) 2, 4

(E) 2, 2, 2 (C) 2, 6 2511. The ground state electronic configuration for an atom of

20

neon, 10

Ne, is (A) 1s 2 2s 2 (D) ls 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6

(B) ls 2 2s 2 2p 6

(E) ls 2 2s 4 2p 4 (C) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1 3850. Which of the following could not represent the electron

configuration of a neutral atom in the ground state?

(A) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 23p 4

(D) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 (B) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2 (E) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1 (C) 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 33p 4

I. STRUCTURE OF MATTER 4. Chemical Bonding E. Molecular Structure

v. Geometry and VSEPR

1597. Which term best describes the molecular geometry of

1677. Predict the geometry of the CH 4 molecule.

ethylene, C 2H 4? (A) Bent (D) Trigonal pyramidal (A) Linear (D) Octahedral

(B) Linear (E) Planar triangular (B) Planar

(E) Trigonal (C) Tetrahedral (C) Pyramidal 1678. Predict the geometry of the HI molecule.

1599. The arrangement of atoms in a water molecule, H 2O, is

(A) Bent (D) Trigonal pyramidal

best described as (B) Linear

(E) Planar triangular (A) ring (D) trigonal pyramidal (C) Tetrahedral (B) trigonal planar (E) bent (C) linear 1679. Predict the geometry and polar nature of the PH 3 molecule.

(A) linear dipole (D) pyramidal nondipole 1619. The shape of a chloroform molecule, CHCl 3. is

(B) linear nondipole (E) tetrahedral nondipole (A) linear (D) planar triangular (C) pyramidal dipole (B) octahedral (E) seesaw (C) tetrahedral 1680. Predict the geometry and polar nature of the BeF 2

molecule.

1632. Which is the shape of the ammonium ion, NH 4 +?

(A) bent dipole (D) pyramidal dipole (A) Linear (D) Trigonal pyramidal

(B) linear dipole (E) tetrahedral nondipole (B) Tetrahedral

(E) Bent (C) linear nondipole (C) Trigonal planar 1681. Predict the geometry and polar nature of the FCl molecule.

1671. What is the geometry of the CHCl 3 molecule?

(A) linear dipole

(D) pyramidal nondipole (A) Bent (D) Trigonal pyramidal (B) linear nondipole (E) tetrahedral nondipole (B) Linear (E) Planar triangular (C) pyramidal dipole (C) Tetrahedral 1682. Predict the geometry and polar nature of the NH 3 molecule.

1672. What is the geometry of the BF 3 molecule?

(A) bent dipole (D) pyramidal nondipole (A) Bent (D) Trigonal pyramidal (B) linear dipole (E) tetrahedral nondipole (B) Linear (E) Planar triangular (C) pyramidal dipole (C) Tetrahedral 1683. Predict the geometry and polar nature of the CCl 4

1673. What is the geometry of the NH 3 molecule?

molecule.

(A) Bent (D) Trigonal pyramidal (A) linear dipole (D) pyramidal nondipole (B) Linear (E) Planar triangular (B) linear nondipole (E) tetrahedral nondipole (C) Tetrahedral (C) pyramidal dipole 1674. What is the geometry of the HBr molecule?

1684. Predict the geometry and polar nature of the H 2O molecule.

(A) Bent (D) Trigonal pyramidal

(A) bent dipole

(D) pyramidal dipole (B) Linear

(E) Planar triangular (B) linear dipole (E) tetrahedral nondipole (C) Tetrahedral (C) linear nondipole 1675. What is the geometry of the SF 2 molecule?

1685. Predict the geometry and polar nature of the BeFCl

(A) Bent

(D) Trigonal pyramidal molecule.

(B) Linear (E) Planar triangular (A) bent dipole (D) pyramidal dipole

(C) Tetrahedral (B) linear dipole

(E) tetrahedral nondipole (C) linear nondipole

1676. Predict the geometry of the CO 2 molecule.

(A) Bent (D) Trigonal pyramidal

(B) Linear

(E) Planar triangular (C) Tetrahedral

I.I. STRUCTURE OF MATTER STRUCTURE OF MATTER 4. Chemical Bonding E.E. Molecular Structure Molecular Structure

v. Geometry and VSEPR

1686. Predict the geometry and polar nature of the CHCl 3

molecule.

(A) bent dipole (D) tetrahedral dipole (B) linear dipole (E) tetrahedral nondipole (C) linear nondipole 1687. Predict the geometry and polar nature of the CO 2molecule.

(A) bent dipole (D) tetrahedral dipole (B) linear dipole (E) tetrahedral nondipole (C) linear nondipole 1781. The shape of the sulfate ion, SO 42–, is most similar to the

shape of (A) N 2H (D) SiH 4

4 (B) CO 32–

(E) SO 2– 3 (C) C 2H 4 1796. The molecular geometry of the sulfite ion, SO 32–, is most

similar to that of (A) water, H 2O

(B) the sulfate ion, SO 42–

(C) the ammonium ion, NH 4+ (D) the hydronium ion, H 3O + (E) boron chloride, BCl 3 1890. The shape of the carbonate ion, CO 32– is

(A) linear (D) tetrahedral (B) pyramidal (E) trigonal planar (C) octahedral 1891. The shape of a BF 3 molecule is

(A) octahedral (D) tetrahedral

(B) planar triangular

(E) trigonal pyramidal (C) square pyramidal 1893. Which consists of tetrahedral molecules?

(A) CsCl (D) H 2O

(B) CO 2

(E) NH 3 (C) CCl 4 1894. The F-B-F angle in a BF 3 molecule is

(A) 90° (D) 120° (B) 102° (E) 180° (C) 109.5° 1895. The shape of an NF 3 molecule is

(A) tetrahedral (D) pyramidal (B) trigonal bipyramidal (E) trigonal planar (C) octahedral

1801. Which best describes the geometry of the ammonia

molecule, NH 3? (A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

1897. Which formula represents a compound whose molecules

are tetrahedral? (A) BH 3 (D) H 2O (B) C 2H 2 (E) C 2H 6 (C) CH 4 1899. The shape of the BCl 3 molecule is

(A) linear (D) trigonal pyramidal (B) octahedral (E) tetrahedral (C) planar triangular 1900. A molecule of CH is

4(A) bent and polar

(B) linear and nonpolar

(C) tetrahedral and nonpolar (D) trigonal pyramidal and polar (E) trigonal planar and nonpolar

I.I. STRUCTURE OF MATTER STRUCTURE OF MATTER 4. Chemical Bonding E.E. Molecular Structure Molecular Structure

v. Geometry and VSEPR

1901. A molecule of NH is

3(A) bent and polar

(B) linear and nonpolar (C) tetrahedral and nonpolar

(D) trigonal pyramidal and polar (E) trigonal planar and nonpolar

1902. The shape of the CO 2 (carbon dioxide) molecule is

(A) bent (D) tetrahedral (B) octagonal (E) linear (C) pyramidal 1903. The shape of CH 2Cl is

2(A) linear (D) tetrahedral (B) planar (E) seesaw

(C) pyramidal

1904. The shape of the CH 4 molecule is

(A) octahedral (D) square planar (B) rectangular (E) trigonal planar (C) tetrahedral

1905. The H–N–H bond angle in NH 3 is less than the H–C–H

angle in CH 4 due to the (A) pair of nonbonded electrons in ammonia. (B) repulsion between hydrogen atoms in ammonia. (C) attraction between hydrogen atoms in methane.

(D) tetrahedral shape of ammonia and methane molecules. (E) larger size of the nitrogen atom than the carbon atom. 1906. The bonding orbitals on the boron atom in BF 3 molecule

are

(A) s orbitals (D) sp

3

orbitals (B) sp orbitals (E) p orbitals

(C) sp 2

orbitals 1907. The shape of a water molecule is

(A) bent

(D) tetrahedral (B) planar (E) octahedral (C) pyramidal 1908. What is the structural shape of the SF 6 molecule?

(A) linear (D) square planar

(B) octahedral

(E) hexahedral (C) tetrahedral 1911. The shape of an NH 3 molecule is

(A) linear (D) trigonal pyramidal (B) tetrahedral (E) bipyramidal (C) planar triangular

2067. The shape of methane molecules, CH 4, is

(A) bent (D) octahedral (B) triangular (E) planar (C) tetrahedral 2068. The molecule carbon dioxide, CO 2,

(A) is bent (B) is linear

(C) has two nonbonding electrons

(D) has one double and one single bond (E) trigonal planar

2069. The shape of the ammonia (NH 3) molecule is

(A) linear (D) trigonal pyramidal (B) tetrahedral (E) square planar (C) trigonal planar 2070. A molecule of CO 2 (carbon dioxide) is

(A) bent and polar (D) pyramidal and polar (B) linear and polar (E) linear and nonpolar (C) bent and nonpolar

3897. Carbon dioxide is (A) linear and polar (D) bent and nonpolar

(B) linear and nonpolar (E) trigonal planar and polar

(C) bent and polar

UNIT II STATES OF MATTER

II.II. STATES OF MATTER

STATES OF MATTER 1. Gases A.A. Ideal Gas Laws

Ideal Gas Laws ii. Boyle's Law

2658. A sample of gas occupies 850 ml at 0°C and 710 mmHg.

Which expression allows computation of the volume of

this sample at standard pressure at constant temperature.

(A) 850 ml × 710 mm

760 mm

(B) 850 ml × 760 mm

710 mm

(C) 1 × 710 mm

850 ml 760 mm

(D) 1 × 760 mm

850 ml 710 mm

(E) 273 K × 760 mm

850 ml 710 mm

2664. A gas occupies a volume of 2.0 liters at 13 atm. How many liters is occupied by this gas at 1.0 atm and the same

temperature?

(A) 0.15 (D) 4.0

(B) 13 (E) 0.06

(C) 26

2674. A weather balloon contains 12 liters of hydrogen at 740 mmHg pressure. At this same temperature, at what

pressure will the volume become 20 liters?

(A) 370 mmHg (D) 888 mmHg

(B) 444 mmHg (E) 1230 mmHg

(C) 760 mmHg

2682. A gas occupies a 1.5 liter container at 25°C and 2.0 atmospheres. If the gas is transferred to a 3.0 liter container at the same temperature, what will be the new pressure ?

(A) 1.0 atm (D) 5.0 atm

(B) 2.0 atm (E) 6.0 atm

(C) 3.0 atm

2687. The volume of a confined gas can be reduced by the application of pressure at constant temperature. The change in volume may be explained by the fact that gaseous

molecules

(A) take up space.

(B) are in constant motion.

(C) are relatively far apart.

(D) collide without loss of energy.

(E) all have the same velocity.

2715. If a volume of 2000 mL of a gas has the pressure increased from 1000 to 2500 mmHg, temperature remaining

constant, what will be its new volume in mL?

(A) 800 (D) 3200

(B) 1250 (E) 5000

(C) 2000 2717. An amount of a gas with a volume of 6,300 mL is changed from a pressure of 4,800 to 1,600 mmHg at constant

temperature. What would be the approximate new volume?

(A) 1,600 mL (D) 9,600 mL

(B) 2,100 mL (E) 19,000 mL

(C) 4,800 mL

2732. Which are inversely proportional?

(A) pressure and moles

(B) pressure and temperature

(C) temperature and volume

(D) pressure and volume

(E) volume and moles

2768. Which curve represents the relationship between the volume of an ideal gas and its pressure for a certain

number of molecules at a constant temperature?

(D)

(A)

(B) (E)

None of the above.

(C)

2779. A given mass of dry gas is kept at constant temperature.

When the pressure is doubled, the volume is

(A) halved

(B) doubled

(C) unchanged

(D) increased by a factor of four

(E) decreased by a factor of four

UNIT III

REACTIONS

III.III. REACTIONS REACTIONS

2. Acids and Bases

C.C. Bronsted-Lowry Theory Bronsted-Lowry Theory

i. Acids

341. What is the hydrogen ion concentration, [H +(aq)], in a

0.02 M aqueous solution of nitric acid, HNO 3?

(A) 1 x 102 M

(D) 2 x 10–12 M (B) 2 x 101 M (E) 2 x 10–32 M (C) 2 x 10–2 M 344. Which gas in moist air will cause respiratory irritation to

humans? (A) He (D) CO 2 (B) N 2 (E) SO 2 (C) O 2 355. What is the difference between a 1.0 M solution of a weak

acid and a 1.0 M solution of a strong acid? The weak acid (A) is more dilute

(B) does not turn litmus red (C) does not conduct electricity

(D) has fewer hydronium ions per liter (E) has more metal ions per liter 368. In the reaction:

– NH 3(aq) + H 2PO (aq) l NH +(aq) + HPO 42–(aq)4 4 – the dihydrogen phosphate ion, H 2PO , acts as

4 (A) an acid

(D) an oxidizing agent (B) a base (E) a catalyst (C) a reducing agent

374. Which statement accounts for the facts that:

I Hydrogen chloride in a nonpolar solvent does not conduct electricity.

II A water solution of hydrogen chloride, HCl, is an excellent conductor of electricity. (A) Water is an electrolyte

(B) Hydrogen chloride ionizes in water (C) Hydrogen chloride is a nonelectrolyte

(D) Hydrogen chloride releases electrons in water

solutions

(E) Hydrogen chloride is an ionic substance

386. The name of a water solution of hydrogen fluoride, HF(g),

is

(A) fluoric acid (D) hydrofluoric acid (B) fluorous acid (E) hypofluorous acid (C) perfluoric acid 401. What is the name of the 1.0 M aqueous acid solution made

using HBrO 4 as the solute? (A) bromic acid (D) hydrobromic acid (B) bromous acid (E) hypobromous acid (C) perbromic acid

391. Base your answer to the following question on the data

from the chart below.

Which can never be an acid? (A) NH 4+ (D) H 3PO 4

– (B) HSO 3 (E) HCO 3 (C) SO 42–

398. Base your answer to the following question on the data

from the chart below.

Which can never be an acid?

(A) HS (D) NO 2 –

(B) H 2O

(E) HOOCCOO (C) NH 3

402. What is the name of the 0.1 M aqueous acid solution made

using H 2S as the solute? (A) salicylic acid (D) hydrosulfurous acid (B) sulfuric acid (E) hydrosulfuric acid (C) sulfurous acid

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sat2考试准备时间要多久

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sat2 math level2

MATH LEVEL2 抱歉这个看得比较少…… 如何使用CASIO 学生用计算器……(本人认为完全不用TI等高级货…中国小孩儿~手绘快~) MODE 2SD统计, 输入方法:A;B M+ 一组……………………之后SHIFT 【S-VAR】 standard deviation 标准偏差Xon-1 其他不用说了 MODE3REG求回归函数吧…… 常用的是LIN线性,LOG对数,QUAD二次,(废话……) 输入方法A,B M+ 一组…………………………之后SHIFT 【S-VAR】 线性:Y= a+ bX 二次:Y=a+bX+cX2 对数:Y=a+bInX indirect proof反证In an indirect proof of ―if p, then q,‖ you assume the negative of the conclusion rhombus 菱形 parallelogram 平行四边形 slant height斜高 pentagon五边形 挑几个我当时觉得有问题的给大家找找自信…… 41. If and , then AB =

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美国高考之satisatiipsatactap比较

美国高考之SATI, SATII, PSAT, ACT, AP比较 SAT SAT是由美国两大非营利组织Education Testing Service(ETS)和College Board联合推出的,美国高校普遍认可的入学考试之一。 SAT又分为SAT1 和SAT2 两个考试。 SAT1 就是我们通常提到的SAT考试,他的全称是SAT Reasoning Test。 SAT2,也叫SAT Subject Test,是专项考试,很多排名靠前的大学入学要求提供2-3门SAT2的成绩。 SAT2有以下几门考试,他们分别是: 1.文学 题目主要根据不同时期的文学作品和诗词,提出一些问题,是SAT中Critical Reading 部分的harder version. 要想得800分,对于美国学生来说也是非常困难,所以一般中国学生还是建议不要考这门。 2.美国历史 这个对中国学生来说也是非常困难,不予考虑。 3.世界历史 因为内容非常广泛,所以难度相对比较低,但是因为我们的词汇量有限,慎入。 4.数学I 数学对中国学生来说是强项,但是这个单项有点简单,很多学校不接受这个成绩,所以不值得一考。 5.数学II

如果想申请好学校,建议考数学II。这个单项考试的内容包括推导微积分的一些计算和矩阵的一些知识,但是内容非常简单,是一个有力的提高自己竞争力的考试。(能答对89%就能够得800分) 6. 生物 生物有两个方向,一个是生态学(Ecological),另外一个是分子学(Molecular). 不管考哪一门,前60道题是一样的,后面的20道题会偏重各自的领域。生物普遍认为有点难,但是很多学生也考的很好。 到底是考生态学好呢,还是考分子学好呢?这两门考试的难易程度差不多,主要看个人的兴趣所在。不过总体来说,考分子学的人比考生态学的人要多。(要想得到800分的成绩,需要答对98%的问题) 7.化学 化学考试考试的内容比基础化学要难一些,但是没有AP化学中的那么详细。要想得到一个好成绩,必须要认真复习,不但要对整体知识结构有所了解,一些细节内容尤其要非常清楚。其中的判断对错题,要求对所学知识掌握的非常扎实才行。(要得到800分,需要答对93%的问题) 8.物理 物理课也不难,比相对应的AP课程要简单。很多中国学生考这门单项。这门单项的评分标准也很宽松,如果你答错了几道题仍然可以得到满分。(800分要答对90%的问题) 9.语言考试 语言考试有以下几种,汉语考试也是其中的一种。不过你如果考了,也不会给你一个中国native speaker带来任何好处。别的语言大多数中国人也不行,所以也不予考虑。 Chinese (Listening) French (Listening or Reading) German (Listening or Reading) Japanese (Listening) Korean (Listening)

SAT2 化学考纲分析

SAT2化学主要考察对化学概念的理解能力。要求你必须会运用比率、正比例和反比例函数、科学计数法、一些简单的指数函数解决问题。考试时间为一小时,这就意味着你有平均42秒的时间来解答85道题目中的每一道题。这个考试更加注重于测试对基本化学概念的理解和领悟程度。众所周知,化学和数学是分不开的。然而如果掌握了这些化学概念,数学上的劣势就不会影响你在化学上的发挥。考试时,会提供一张元素周期表,但是它要比平常所使用的更简洁,只包括元素符号、原子序数、原子量。 考试会考什么内容?难度如何? 题目所占分值的大 概比例 问题的 数量 结构?原子理论和结构;周期性 ?核反应 ?化学键和分子结构 25 21 物质的状态?气体动力论和气体定律 ?液体、固体和状态变化 ?溶液,浓度单位,溶解度,传导率,溶液的依数性 15 13 反应类型?酸碱反应 ?氧化还原反应;化学电池 ?沉淀反应 14 12 化学计量学摩尔内容,阿伏伽德罗常数,经验公式,化学计算,百分组成12 10 化学平衡和化学反应速率化学平衡;质量(浓度)的表达,离子平衡,勒复特列原理;影响反应速率的因素 7 热力学化学反应中的能量转换;赫士定律 6 5 描述化学元素的物理化学性质以及常见的化合物,活泼性和化学反应产物, 有机和环境化学中的简单例子 13 11 实验部分设备,测量,过程,观察,安全事项,计算, 实验结果的解释7 6 考察的思维技能大致比例 基本概念,基本知识,基本术语(低级技能)20 理解基本概念并能运用到实际问题中,解决一些定性 和定量问题(中级技能) 45 运用所学知识分析已有信息,判断使用何种方法得出 结论,解决问题 35 第一个表格表述了考试的大致内容。考试通过85道多项选择题来考察你对知识的掌握情况和综合运用能力。每次考试都会涉及表中所列题目,但是每次的侧重点是不同的。由于各个学校的教学不是绝对统一的,考试中会有一些题目你是不熟悉的,甚至根本没有接触过。从整体上讲,SAT2化学难度不是很大。如果认真准备,就能取得很好的成绩。 SAT2化学考试需要具备哪些常识?

SAT2数学词汇

SAT Ⅱ数学词汇 assume that 假设approximation 近似,近似值absolute value 绝对值 acute 锐(角) alternate angles 内错角angle 角 area 面积 arithmetic sequence 等差数列assumption 假设 asymptote 渐近线 at random 随机地 average 平均的 axis 轴 circle 圆 circumference 周长clockwise 顺时针的common divisor 公约数common multiple 公倍数composite number 合数cone 圆锥 congruent 全等的coordinate 坐标 cube 立方体 cube root 立方根 cylinder 圆柱体 diagonal 对角线 digit 数字,位 divide 除 divisible 可整除的 domain 定义域 eccentricity 离心率 elipse 椭圆 equilateral 等边的 even 偶的 expotent 指数 function 函数 geometric sequence 等比数列hyperbola 双曲线 infinite 无穷的 integer 整数 intercept 截距

intersect 相交 irrational number 无理数isosceles 等腰的 major axis 长轴 mean 平均数 median 中数 minor axis 短轴 minus 减 mode 众数 multiply 乘 negative 负的 number line 数轴obtuse 钝(角) odd 奇的 origin of coordinates 原点parallel 平行的parallelogram 平行四边形perimeter 周长perpendicular 垂直的plus 加 polynomial 多项式positive 正的 prime number 质数probability 概率 product 积 proportion 比例quadruple 四倍的quotient 商 radian 弧度 radius 半径 range 值域 rational number 有理数rectangle 矩形 right 直(角) section 截面 sector 扇形 segment 线段 similar 相似的 slope 斜率 square 正方形 square root 平方根standard deviation 标准差

让我帮你揭开SAT2化学的真面目吧!

让我帮你揭开SAT2化学的真面目吧! SAT2考试科目中有一项SAT化学考试。对于中国考生来说,化学考试还是有些难度的,那么 SAT化学考试到底难不难?你对SAT考试又了解多少呢?下面,天道留学小编就给大家分享有关SAT2 化学考试相关内容,希望对大家有所帮助。 SAT2化学主要考察对化学概念的理解能力。要求你必须会运用比率、正比例和反比例函数、科 学计数法、一些简单的指数函数解决问题。考试时间为一小时,这就意味着你有平均42秒的时间来解答85道题目中的每一道题。这个考试更加注重于测试对基本化学概念的理解和领悟程度。众所周知,化学和数学是分不开的。然而如果掌握了这些化学概念,数学上的劣势就不会影响你在化学上 的发挥。考试时,会提供一张元素周期表,但是它要比平常所使用的更简洁,只包括元素符号、原 子序数、原子量。 SAT2化学考试需要具备哪些常识? SAT2考试中会提供元素周期表,包括原子序数和原子量。考试中不允许使用计算器。一定要熟 悉比率,正反比例函数,科学计数法,指数函数。考试使用国际单位制。 SAT2化学考试会考哪些类型的问题? SAT2考试中大致有三种题型——配对问题,对错问题,多项选择题。下面讨论一下每种题型, 并列举特例说明如何解答这些题目。应该仔细阅读每一种题型的说明,这样在考试时你就会很熟悉了。下面对三种题型的说明与实际考试中的是完全相同的。 第一种类型. 配对问题(Matching questions in Part A) 在每一道这种题型中,给出五个选项来回答所有问题。选项可能是说明性的文字,图画,图表,实验结果,方程式等。有的问题只需要简单的回忆一下知识,有的问题需要对所给信息进行定性或 定量的分析来总结出答案。这种题型的说明特别强调每个选项可以使用一次,多次或者不使用。这 些在sat2化学真题中大家就可以发现。 第二种题型. 对错问题 (True/false and relationship questions in Part B) 在实际的SAT2考试中,这种类型的问题要求把答案写在标有“化学”的专用的答题纸上。第二种类型的题目从101道题目开始。每道题目的第一栏有一种表述,另一边的第二栏有另一种表述。 你的首要任务是判断这些表述是否正确,并在答题纸上相应位置选择T或F;然后运用推理能力和对 题目的理解判断两种表述是否存在因果关系。 第三种题型. 多项选择题(General multiple-choice question in Part C) 该题型通常为问题或者不完整表述,带有五个备选答案,你必须从中选出最佳答案。在有些题 目中,要求选出不恰当的答案。这种问题包括大写的单词,例如 NOT, LEAST, EXCEPT。

Types of Chemical Reactions化学反应类型

Types of Chemical Reactions It is important that you know the basic types of chemical reactions for the SAT II Chemistry test since the test often refers to reactions as being of one type or another. Here’s a list of the different types of reactions, with examples of each type included. Synthesis reaction: This is a reaction in which two or more elements or compounds combine to form a single product. This type of reaction follows the general equation where A and B may be either elements or compounds. Here are some examples: Decomposition reaction: In this type of reaction, a single reactant, a compound, breaks into two or more parts. Often these are the most difficult to predict. Here is the general equation: AB→A + B where A and B may be either elements or compounds. Here are some examples of decomposition reactions: Single replacement or displacement reaction: In this type of reaction, a more active element replaces a less active element in a compound. Among the halogens, F2 is the most active halogen, and the activity of the halogens decreases as you go down the group. For the metals, you will need to be given an activity series. General equation: A + BC→AC + B where A is a metal.

SAT2数学考试知识点介绍

SAT2数学考试知识点介绍 以下是小编为大家整理的SAT2数学考试知识点介绍,希望对大家sat考试备考有帮助,需要的同学赶快下载吧。 SAT2数学考试知识点中,Level 1和Level 2各个知识点的问题数目对比: Content Area (涉及范围)Level 1Level 2 Algebra (代数)1310 Plane Geometry(平面几何)90 Solid Geometry(立体几何)33 Coordinate Geometry(坐标几何)56 Trigonometry(三角学)37 Functions(函数)714 Statistics/ Probability(统计/概率)44 Miscellaneous(杂项)66 根据以上SAT2数学考试知识点的范围以及各范围所占的题目数量,我们可以发现:当我们突破了LEVEL2之后,LEVEL1将迎刃而解 SAT2数学考试中,LEVEL2 知识点总结: Algebra (代数)部分 根据考试方的官方分类,Algebra大概占MATH2考试所有问题的18%,代数是MATH2的基础,没有对它熟练的掌握很难拿到高分,当然这点对于中国学生来说,简直是小菜一碟。 对代数部分,Kaplan的介绍分为四个方面 Expressions and exponents (表达式和指数) Operations with polynomials and factoring (多项式和因数分解的应用) The Golden Rule of equations (等式的黄金规则) Quadratic equations (二次方程式) 练习时的时间控制在:12分钟10道题

SAT2数学知识点集锦

一、Arithmetic(大约5道题) 1、ComplexNumber复数 Operation复数运算 ComplexPlane复平面 Magnitudeof Complex Number复数的模 2、Ratio,Proportion and Percentage比例和百分数 复利和人口增长率问题 体积或面积变化率问题 3、NumberTheory数论 奇偶数(Odd and Even)、质数(Prime Number)、约数倍数(Factor and Multiple)、余数(Remainder) 4、Sequence数列 等差数列(Arithmetic Sequence)、等比数列(Geometric Sequence) 5、Determinantand Matrix行列式和矩阵 Determinant——行列式表示符号,2x2、3x3行列式的计算法则,行列式的数乘 Matrix——矩阵的表示符号,矩阵的加减、数乘法,矩阵的乘法 二、Algebra(大约30道题) 1、Function函数 函数的定义 函数的性质,包括定义域值域、奇偶性、单调性、周期性和图像 2、InverseFunction反函数

反函数定义 反函数性质,包括反函数存在条件、图像对称等 3、CompositeFunction复合函数 f(x)、g(x)、f[g(x)]三者相互转化 4、ElementaryFunction初等函数 (1)Power Function幂函数 LinearFunction一次函数,包括斜率、截距、两直线平行和垂直,一次不等式及线性规划 QuadraticFunction二次函数,包括一般式、顶点式、顶点坐标和对称轴,二次方程和不等式 High-DegreeFunction高次函数,包括多项式除法、复数根、高次函数图像特点 (2)Exponential Function指数函数 指数运算公式 指数函数性质,包括定义域值域、图像 (3)Logarithm Function对数函数 对数运算公式 对数函数性质,包括定义域值域、图像 (4)Trigonometry Function三角函数 a.角度制(Degree)和弧度制(Radian) sinx,cosx,tanx,cotx,secx,cscx等六个基本三角函数的相互转换; 诱导公式

100多元素英文全词源记忆__AP_SAT2化学_Chemistry

以地名命名: Rhenium 铼Re Rhine莱茵河 Germanium 锗Ge German Americium 镅Am America Ruthenium 钌Ru 发现于Ruthenia鲁塞尼亚地区的矿中Europium 铕Eu Europe Lutetium 镥Lu 巴黎原名Lutetia Gallium 镓Ga 拉丁语Gallia法国 Thulium 铥Tm 极北地区Thule图勒 Yttrium 钇Y Ytterby,一家发现钇的瑞典采石场 Ytterbium 镱Yb Ytterby,一家发现镱的瑞典采石场Strontium 锶Sr 发现于Strontian苏格兰高地的一个牧区Holmium 钬Ho 瑞典首都Stockholm斯特哥尔摩 Hafnium 铪Hf 丹麦语Havn,哥本哈根原名 Erbium 铒Er (Ytt)erb(y),一家发现铒的瑞典采石场Francium 钫Fr 发现于France法国 Polonium 钋Po Poland波兰,波兰人居里夫人一起发现Terbium 铽Tb (Yt)terb(y),一家发现铽的瑞典采石场Scandium 钪Sc 发现于scandinavia斯堪的纳维亚Californium 锎Cf 发现于California University加州大学Berkelium 锫Bk 合成于Berkeley伯克利 以颜色命名: Arsenic 砷As 拉丁语arsenicum雄黄,指砷的硫化物为黄色Indium 铟In indigo靛蓝色 Iodine 碘I 法语iode紫色 Thallium 铊Ti 希腊语Thallos(green),指其光谱的颜色Rubidium 铷Rb 拉丁语rubidus(red),指其光谱的颜色Iridium 铱Ir 拉丁语iris彩虹,其化合物有多种颜色

以M开头的化学专业词汇表

摘要:以M开头的化学专业词汇表。下面为大家整理的是以字母M开头的SAT2化学专业词汇,数量不是很多,后面附有汉语解释。SAT2化学考试对于中国考生来说相对比较难,所以大家在备考的时候一定要把词汇方面的基础打牢。一起来看看这些词汇的详细内容吧。 magnesium ribbon 镁条 magnet 磁铁 magnetic field 磁场 magnetise 磁化 malleable 有延展性的 Maltese Cross 马耳他十字 marble 大理石 marine invertebrate 海里的无脊椎动物 mass number 质量数 mass spectrometer 质谱仪 matter 物质 mechanism 机理 megawatt 兆瓦,即106瓦 melting point tube containing sample 装有样品的熔点测定管 melting point 熔点 Mendeleev’s periodic table metabolism 新陈代谢 metal calorimeter 金属量热计 metal complex 金属络合物(由金属离子与电子给予体结合而成)

metal foil 金箔 metal hydride 金属氢化物 metallic bonding 金属键(通过自由运动的价电子将金属原子连结起来的键) metallic element 金属元素 metallic radius 金属半径 meteorite 陨星 methane 甲烷 methanol (=CH3OH) 甲醇 methoxymethane 甲氧基甲烷 methyl(-CH3) 甲基 Methylpropane 甲基丙烷 microbe 微生物,细菌 Millikan’s ‘oil-drop’ ecperiment 密立根油滴实验 mineral 矿物质 miscibility with water 与水的互溶性 mixture 混合物(由两种或多种物质混合而成的,这些物质相互间没有发生反应,混合物里各物质都保持原来的性质) mobile electron 流动电子 model-building 模型建筑 molar mass 摩尔质量(1摩尔物质的质量) molarity 摩尔浓度,也叫物质的量浓度(以1升即1立方分米溶液里含有多少摩溶质来表示溶液组成的物理量) mole molecular formula

灭活剂

灭活剂:用于灭活微生物的化学试剂或药品称为灭活剂。如甲醛和β-丙内酯(BPL)。β-丙内酯(β-PL):广泛用于病毒及灭活疫苗的研制和生产。做灭活剂使用。如用β-丙内酯应使用95%以上浓度的新试剂,β-丙内酯保存时间过长引起自身聚合,影响灭活效果。我国制备狂犬病疫苗时采用甲醛溶液灭活,甲醛为致癌物,残留的游离甲醛随疫苗注入人体后产生制激性反应。β-丙内酯由于能在疫苗液体中完全水解,不必考虑在成品疫苗中的残留,因此可考虑在纯化前低剂量预灭活一次,提高生产工序时的安全性,在纯化后再灭活一次以确保完全灭活. BPL在国外已广泛用于各种疫苗的灭活。它是一种杂环类化合物(C3H4O2),沸点15 5℃,常温下是无色粘稠状液体,对病毒具有很强的灭活作用,其机理为改变病毒RNA结构达到灭活目的。β-丙内酯杀灭病毒的作用很强,1 g/L β-丙内酯,在37℃作用2小时后即可杀灭血浆中的西方马脑炎病毒、东方马脑炎病毒、淋巴脉络丛脑炎病毒、圣路易脑炎病毒、狂犬病病毒等。到目前为止,以流感病毒、猪瘟病毒、腺病毒、乙肝病毒、痘病毒、黄热病毒、微小RNA 病毒、疱疹病毒、东方马脑炎病毒、西方马脑炎病毒、委内瑞拉脑炎病毒、狂犬病病毒、鼠脑炎病毒等作试验,β-丙内酯气体均能有效地将其杀灭,一般认为,β-丙内脂气体杀灭病毒的有效浓度为5~30mg/L。低浓度的β-丙内酯(2~4 mg/L)可以破坏病毒核酸,但不改变病毒蛋白质,因此也是灭活疫苗制造中很常用的病毒灭活剂。实践中应根据病毒材料的种类和状态,应用正确浓度、使用方法、作用时间、温度等等。 甲醛和戊二醛 甲醛及其37~40%溶液即福尔马林,是病毒学中普遍应用的一种病毒灭活剂,在灭活疫苗的制造中尤为常用。甲醛对病毒核酸和病毒蛋白质都有破坏作用,但首先是使病毒核酸灭活——与腺嘌呤、鸟嘌呤和胞嘧啶等含有胺基的碱基结合而使病毒核酸变性。甲醛较高浓度和较长时间的作用,可与病毒蛋白质的胺基结合而形成羟甲基衍生物或二羟甲基衍生物,后者再与酰胺发生交联反应。病毒蛋白质因而变性,阻止病毒核酸的逸出。 甲醛对单链核酸最为有效,故常用于RNA病毒的灭活。适当浓度的甲醛灭活病毒后,病毒抗原性、血凝性均不改变,故常用其灭活病毒制造疫苗,迄今应用的灭活病毒疫苗,约有50%以上是用甲醛作灭活剂,通常应用0.05%~0.1%~0.2%浓度的福尔马林。其它病毒制品如血凝抗原、补体结合抗原、琼扩抗原也常以甲醛灭活病毒制备。 戊二醛对病毒的作用与甲醛相似,但灭活作用更强,2%碱性戊二醛溶液在1分钟内能杀灭所有病毒。在病毒学中,戊二醛常用于实验室污染器材如超净工作台、离心机的擦拭消毒。用强化酸性戊二醛(含0.25 乙烯脂肪醇醚)代替常用的3%~5%石炭酸溶液浸泡污染的吸管、试管等,具有可靠的消毒效果。 疫苗灭活剂β-丙内酯(Beta-Propiolactone,BPL) 灭活是指破坏病原体的生物学特性,但尽可能避免影响其免疫原性或破坏血清中补体活性的过程。常用的灭活剂有甲醛、β-丙内酯(BPL)或其他有效灭活剂。 甲醛是一种有强烈刺激性的致癌物质。其既可作用于病毒含氨基的核苷酸碱基(如A,G,U),又可作用病毒壳蛋白。作用于病毒壳蛋白时,易使蛋白质发生交联或病毒颗粒聚集,不能再作用于壳蛋白内的核酸。这样,病原体蛋白的抗原性会遭到严重破坏,并可能有病原体存活;用甲醛灭活时间长,一般需要在37-39℃处理24h以上或更长时间。并且灭活的效果易受温度、pH、浓度、是否存在有机物、病原体的种类和含氮量等因素影响,在研究中应引起注意;残留的游离甲醛,若随疫苗注入机体后,会产生制激性反应。

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