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文章名：What is Android?
书刊名：《Android Wireless Application Development》
作者：Shane Conder
出版社：Addison-Wesley，2010
章节：1.2 About Android
页码：P2~P4
文章译名：andriod是什么？
姓名：
学号：
指导教师(职称)：
专业：
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所在学院：
What Is Android?
Key Skills & Concepts
●History of embedded device programming
●Explanation of Open Handset Alliance
●First look at the Android home screen
It can be said that, for a while, traditional desktop application developers have been spoiled. This is not to say that traditional desktop application development is easier than other forms of development. However, as traditional desktop application developers, we have had the ability to create almost any kind of application we can imagine. I am including myself in this grouping because I got my start in desktop programming.
One aspect that has made desktop programming more accessible is that we have had the ability to interact with the desktop operating system, and thus interact with any underlying hardware, pretty freely (or at least with minimal exceptions). This kind of freedom to program independently, however, has never really been available to the small group of programmers who dared to venture into the murky waters of cell phone development.
NOTE
I refer to two different kinds of developers in this discussion: traditional desktop application developers, who work in almost any language and whose end product, applications, are built to run on any “desktop” operating system; and Android developers, Java developers who develop for the Android platform. This is not for the purposes of saying one is by any means better or worse than the other.
Rather, the distinction is made for purposes of comparing the development styles and tools of desktop operating system environments to the mobile operating system environment, Android.
Brief History of Embedd ed Device Programming For a long time, cell phone developers comprised a small sect of a slightly larger group of developers known as embedded device developers. Seen as a less “glamorous” sibling to desktop—and later web—development, embedded device development typically got the proverbial short end of the stick as far as hardware and operating system features, because embedded device manufacturers were notoriously stingy on feature support. Embedded device manufacturers typically needed to guard their hardware secrets closely, so they gave embedded device developers few libraries to call when trying to interact with a specific device.
Embedded devices differ from desktops in that an embedded device is typically a “computer on a chip.” For example, consider you r standard television remote control; it is not really seen as an overwhelming achievement of technological complexity. When any button is pressed, a chip interprets the signal in a way that has been programmed into the device. This allows the device to know what to expect from the input device (key pad), and how to respond to those commands (for example, turn on the television). This is a simple form of embedded device programming. However, believe it or not, simple devices such as these are definitely related to the roots of early cell phone devices and development.
Most embedded devices ran (and in some cases still run) proprietary operating systems. The reason for choosing to create a proprietary operating system rather than use any consumer system was really a product of necessity. Simple devices did not need very
robust and optimized operating systems.
As a product of device evolution, many of the more complex embedded devices, such as early PDAs, household security systems, and GPSs, moved to somewhat standardized operating system platforms about five years ago. Small-footprint operating systems such as Linux, or even an embedded version of Microsoft Windows, have become more prevalent on many embedded devices. Around this time in device evolution, cell phones branched from other embedded devices onto their own path. This branching is evident when you examine their architecture.
Nearly since their inception, cell phones have been fringe devices insofar as they run on proprietary software—software that is owned and controlled by the manufacturer, and is almost always considered to be a “closed” system. The practice of manufacturers using proprietary operating systems began more out of necessity than any other reason. That is, cell phone manufacturers typically used hardware that was completely developed in-house, or at least hardware that was specifically developed for the purposes of running cell phone equipment. As a result, there were no openly available, off-the-shelf software packages or solutions that would reliably interact with their hardware. Since the manufacturers also wanted to guard very closely their hardware trade secrets, some of which could be revealed by allowing access to the software level of the device, the common practice was, and in most cases still is, to use completely proprietary and closed software to run their devices. The downside to this is that anyone who wanted to develop applications for cell phones needed to have intimate knowledge of the proprietary environment within which it was to run. The solution was to purchase expensive development tools directly from the manufacturer. This isolated many of the “homebrew” developers.
NOTE
A growing culture of homebrew developers has embraced cell phone application development. The te rm “homebrew” refers to the fact that these developers typically do not work for a cell phone development company and generally produce small, one-off products on their own time.
Another, more compelling “necessity” that kept cell phone development out of the hands of the everyday developer was the hardware manufacturers’ solution to the “memory versus need” dilemma. Until recently, cell phones did little more than execute and receive phone calls, track your contacts, and possibly send and receive short text messages; not really the “Swiss army knives” of technology they are today. Even as late as 2002, cell phones with cameras were not commonly found in the hands of consumers.
By 1997, small applications such as calculators and games (Tetris, for example) crept their way onto cell phones, but the overwhelming function was still that of a phone dialer itself. Cell phones had not yet become the multiuse, multifunction personal tools they are today. No one yet saw the need for Internet browsing, MP3 playing, or any of the multitudes of functions we are accustomed to using today. It is possible that the cell phone manufacturers of 1997 did not fully perceive the need consumers would have for an all-in-one device. However, even if the need was present, a lack of device memory and storage capacity was an even bigger obstacle to overcome. More people may have wanted their devices to be all-in-one tools, but manufacturers still had to climb the memory hurdle.
To put the problem simply, it takes memory to store and run applications on any device, cell phones included. Cell phones, as a device, until recently did not have the amount of memory available to them that would facilitate the inclusion of “extra” programs. Within the last two years, the price of memory has reached very low levels.
Device manufacturers now have the ability to include more memory at lower prices. Many cell phones now have more standard memory than the average PC had in the mid-1990s. So, now that we have the need, and the memory, we can all jump in and
develop cool applications for cell phones around the world, right? Not exactly.
Device manufacturers still closely guard the operating systems that run on their devices. While a few have opened up to the point where they will allow some Java-based applications to run within a small environment on the phone, many do not allow this. Even the systems that do allow some Java apps to run do not allow the kind of access to the “core” system that standard desktop developers are accustomed to having.
Open Handset Alliance and Android
This barrier to application development began to crumble in November of 2007 when Google, under the Open Handset Alliance, released Android. The Open Handset Alliance is a group of hardware and software developers, including Google, NTT DoCoMo, Sprint Nextel, and HTC, whose goal is to create a more open cell phone environment.
The first product to be released under the alliance is the mobile device operating system, Android. (For more information about the Open Handset Alliance, see
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/a29730555.html,.) With the release of Android, Google made available a host of development tools and tutorials to aid would-be developers onto the new system. Help files, the platform sof tware development kit (SDK), and even a developers’ community can be found at Google’s Android website, https://www.wendangku.net/doc/a29730555.html,/android. This site should be your starting point, and I highly encourage you to visit the site.
NOTE
Google, in promoting the new Android operating system, even went as far as to create a $10 million contest looking for new and exciting Android applications.
While cell phones running Linux, Windows, and even PalmOS are easy to find, as of this writing, no hardware platforms have been announced for Android to run on. HTC, LG Electronics, Motorola, and Samsung are members of the Open Handset Alliance, under which Android has been released, so we can only hope that they have plans for a few Android-based devices in the near future. With its release in November 2007, the system itself is still in a software-only beta. This is good news for developers because it gives us a rare advance look at a future system and a chance to begin developing applications that will run as soon as the hardware is released.
NOTE
This strategy clearly gives the Open Handset Alliance a big advantage over other cell phone operating system developers, because there could be an uncountable number of applications available immediately for the first devices released to run Android. Introduction to Android
Android, as a system, is a Java-based operating system that runs on the Linux 2.6 kernel. The system is very lightweight and full featured. Figure 1-1 shows the unmodified Android home screen.
Figure 1-1 The current Android home screen as seen on the Android Emulator Android applications are developed using Java and can be ported rather easily to the new platform. If you have not yet downloaded Java or are unsure about which version you need, I detail the installation of the development environment in Chapter 2. Other features of Android include an accelerated 3-D graphics engine (based on hardware support), database support powered by SQLite, and an integrated web browser.
If you are familiar with Java programming or are an OOP developer of any sort, you are likely used to programmatic user interface (UI) development—that is, UI placement which is handled directly within the program code. Android, while recognizing and allowing for programmatic UI development, also supports the newer, XML-based UI layout. XML
UI layout is a fairly new concept to the average desktop developer. I will cover both the XML UI layout and the programmatic UI development in the supporting chapters of this book.
One of the more exciting and compelling features of Android is that, because of its architecture, third-party applications—including those that are “home grown”—are executed with the same system priority as those that are bundled with the core system.
This is a major departure from most systems, which give embedded system apps a greater execution priority than the thread priority available to apps created by third-party developers. Also, each application is executed within its own thread using a very lightweight virtual machine.
Aside from the very generous SDK and the well-formed libraries that are available to us to develop with, the most exciting feature for Android developers is that we now have access to anything the operating system has access to. In other words, if you want to create an application that dials the phone, you have access to the phone’s dialer; if you want to create an application that utilizes the phone’s internal GPS (if equipped), you have access to it. The potential for developers to create dynamic and intriguing applications is now wide open.
On top of all the features that are available from the Android side of the equation, Google has thrown in some very tantalizing features of its own. Developers of Android
applications will be able to tie their applications into existing Google offerings such as Google Maps and the omnipresent Google Search. Suppose you want to write an application that pulls up a Google map of where an incoming call is emanating from, or you want to be able to store common search results with your contacts; the doors of possibility have been flung wide open with Android.
Ask the Expert
Q: What is the difference between Google and the Open Handset Alliance?
A: Google is a member of the Open Handset Alliance. Google, after purchasing the original developer of Android, released the operating system under the Open Handset Alliance.
Q: Is Android capable of running any Linux software?
A: Not necessarily. While I am sure that there will be ways to get around most any open source system, applications need to be compiled using the Android SDK to run on Android. The main reason for this is that Android applications execute files in a specific format; this will be discussed in later chapters.
译文：
Android是什么？
关键技术&概念
●嵌入式设备编程项目历史
●解释开放手机联盟
●第一次观看Android主屏幕
能够说，传统的桌面应用程序开发者已经很受宠了。这不是说传统桌面应用程序开发比其他形式的开发更简单。然而，作为一个传统桌面应用程序开发者，我们已经有创建所有我们能够想象的任何一种应用程序的能力。我也指包括我在内，因为我以前就开始桌面项目开发。
一方面，我们已经有能力去和桌面操作系统互动已经使桌面编程开发更易接受，这样的互动是和任何底层的硬件的。相当自由（或者至少有很小的例外）。这种自由、独立地编程，已经不再是那些敢于冒险跳进手机开发黑水中的小数量的开发者能够获得的。
注意：
在这个讨论中我提及到了两种不同的开发者：传统桌面应用程序开发者，他们
几乎用所有的编程语言来工作，他们的最终产品、应用程序被构建成能运行在任何一种桌面操作系统上；；Android开发者（（Java开发者），为Android平台开发。这不是有意图说哪一种开发者在某种意义上比另一种更好或者更坏。然而，这个讨论意图在于：桌面操作系统环境和移动操作系统环境Android的开发形式和开发工具的比较。
简短的嵌入式设备开发历史
很长一段时间，手机开发者构成了一个认作是嵌入式设备开发者的小的稍微大点的派别。理解成一个小的具有魅力的桌面家族成员-后来的网络Web-开发，嵌入式设备开发代表性地得到闻名的短的结局，远至硬件和操作系统特色，因为嵌入式设备制造业在特色支持方面恶名昭彰地吝啬。嵌入式设备制造厂商典型地需要封闭地保护他们硬件的机密，因此，当嵌入式设备开发者试着去与特殊的设备互动时嵌入式设备制造厂商给他们很少的函数库去调用。嵌入式设备不同于桌面系统是一个嵌入式设备是一个典型的“片上计算机”。例如：考虑你的标准电视机的远程控制。它不是真正看上去像一个无法实现的复杂技术的实现。当任何一个按钮按下，芯片以一种方法解释信号（已经编程嵌入到设备中）。这允许设备从输入设备（键盘）知道用户期望干什么，和如何对这些命令响应（例如，打开电视机）。这是一个来自嵌入式设备的编程例子。
然而，信或不信，诸如这些简单的设备被明确涉及到早期手机设备和开发的根源。大多数嵌入式设备运行（在一些情况仍然运行）在专有的操作系统上。选择创建一个专有的操作系统而不是使用任何消费者系统的理由是：这是一个产品正真必需的。简单的设备不需要很耐用、完善的操作系统。作为一种设备产品的发展，大约2年前左右，许多复杂的嵌入式设备，例如早期的PDAs，家庭安全系统，和和GPSs，被移植到有点标准化的操作系统平台上。小体积的操作系统如Linux，或甚至嵌入式版本的MicrosoftWindows，已经是在许多嵌入式设备上很流行了。围绕这个时间段的设备发展，手机从其他的嵌入式设备分支成他们己的路线。当你查看他们的业绩时，这个分支显得很明显。
几乎从他们起初，当运行专有的软件（被制造厂商拥有和控制，几乎也总是被考虑是“封闭”系统）时，手机就已经成为终端设备的范围内。制造厂商使用专有的操作系统的实践开始比其他任何理由更加不必要。这是因为手机制造商代表性的使用完全在内部开发出的硬件。或至少硬件是为运行手机设备特别开发出来的，结果，这些硬件、专有系统不是开发地可获得的，空架的软件包，或者解答（这些都是能够确切与他们硬件互动的）。自制造商想更可靠地保护他们的硬件交易机密（通过允许接近设备软件水平可以显露出来），通常的实践是（在多数情况下仍然是）通过完全专用的和封闭的软件来运行他们的设备。接下来就是，任何想为手机开发能够在上面运行的应用程序的人不得不去揭秘专有系统环境。解决方法是直接向制造商购买昂贵的开发工具。这孤立了很多“业余爱好”的开发者们。
注意：
一种成长的业余爱好开发者文化已经拥抱着手机应用程序开发。“业余爱好者”队伍事实涉及到了那些具有代表性的、不是为手机开发公司工作的开发者和普遍地小生产，利用他们自己时间开发产品的人。
其他的，更多强制的“必需品”是硬件制造商对于“内存对照需求”困境的解答（这使天天进行手机开发的开发者难以入手）。直到最近，手机不是比实现多一点点，
接收电话，跟踪你的联系，并且可能的发送和接收文本短信；当今他们不是真正的“瑞士军刀”技术。甚至迟到2002年，带有照相机的手机在消费者的手上一般的也没有见到。到1997年，小应用程序例如计算器和游戏（俄罗斯方块，举例）缓慢地在手机上爬行他们的发展路线，但是这些无法实现的功能仍然是电话拨号程序本身。手机还没有成为今天它们的多样的，多功能的个人工具。这是可能的，1997年，手机制造商完全没有意识到消费者需求是所有功能集聚一个设备上。不过，即使这个需求是目前的，设备的内存缺乏，存储能力是一个更大的要去克服的障碍。更多的人可能已经想过他们的设备变成聚集所有功能为一身的工具，但是制造商仍然不得不攀爬内存障碍。
为了使问题简单，这使得任何设备上让内存去存储和运行应用程序，包括手机。手机，作为一种设备，直到最近都还没有使手机容易包含额外程序的大量内存。在最近两年里，内存价格已经达到很低的水平了。设备制造商现在有能力以更低的价格包含更多的内存。现在很多手机拥有比1990世纪中期普通PC机更标准的内存。因此，现在我们有了需要、内存，我们可以深入，并且在世界范围里为手机开发酷的应用程序，对不？不是确切的。
设备制造商仍然封闭地保护运行在他们设备上的操作系统。而一些对这一点已经开放，他们允许一些以Java为基础的应用程序在手机上的小环境里运行，许多的都不允许这样做。甚至某些不允许运行一些Java应用程序的系统不允许接近标准桌面开发者习惯去拥有的核心系统。
开放手机联盟和A NDROID
在2007年11月，当Google，在开放手机联盟下，发布Android，这个对于应用程序开发者的障开始消失。开放手机联盟是一个硬件和软件开发者组织，它包括Google 、NTT DoCoMo ，Sprint Nextel，和 HTC，它的目标是创建一个更开放的手机环境。在开放手机联盟组织下发布的第一个产品是Android-移动设备操作系统。（获得更多关于开放手机联盟的信息，登陆https://www.wendangku.net/doc/a29730555.html,）和Android发行一起，Google开发了可获得的主要开发工具和指南去帮助要成为新系统开发者的人。帮助文档、平台软件开发包（（SDK）和甚至在Google的Android网站上能被找到的一个开发者社区，https://www.wendangku.net/doc/a29730555.html,/android.这个网站应该是你的入门点，我十分鼓励你去访问该网站。
注意：
Google，为促进新的Android操作系统，甚至开始了举办了一个1000万的竞赛，寻求新的、令人兴奋地Android应用程序。
而运行在Linux、Windows、甚至PalmOS上的手机能轻易找到，到写这书为止，没有硬件平台被宣布专门为Android所运行。。HTC、LG电子、、Motorola和Samsung 都是开放手机联盟的成员，在Android已经被发布之下，我们只希望他们为Android-based设备在未来有计划实行。在它2007年11月发行，这系统本身仍然只是一个测试版软件。这对于开发者是一个好消息，因为它给我们一个展望未来系统珍贵的进步发展和一个开始开发将会很快在被发布的硬件上运行的应用程序的机会。
注意：
这个策略清楚地给开放手机联盟一个大优势超过别的手机操作系统开发者，因
为对于第一个发布的运行Android的设备将会有无数的应用程序可以直接获得。
Android作为一个系统,是一个运行在Linux2.6内核上的基于Java的操作系统.这个系统非常轻量级的,并且功能丰富.图1-1展示未修改的Android主屏幕。拥有
图1-1目前版本Android主屏幕，模拟器
Android应用程序是用Java开发的，能够十分简单的装入新的平台。如果你还没有下载Java或者不确信需要哪个版本，我在第二章节详述安装开发环境。
Android的其他特色包括加速3D绘图引擎（依赖于硬件支持），，SQLite强力支持的数据库，和一个综合完整的Web浏览器。如果你熟练Java编程或者是一个任何种类的OOP开发者，你可能用过用户界面（UI）开发，那是UI放置（直接在项目源码中运用的）。。Android能识别和允许为项目的UI做开发，也支持更新的，基于XML 的UI编排设计。。XMLUI编排设计对于一般桌面开发者是一个相当新的概念。在本书支持的章节里我将涵盖XMLUILayout和项目的UI开发。
Android一个最令人兴奋和注目的特色是它的架构，三部分运用程序-包括“home-grown”当这些和内核系统绑定，可带有同样的系统优先权执行。这是和大多系统一个主要的违背，它给了嵌入式系统应用程序一个比进程优先级（从第三方开发者创建的应用程序获得）更大的执行权。每一个应用程序在它自己的进程里使用一个很轻量级的虚拟机执行。除了我们能够获得用来开发的很大量的SDK和良好的架构库，对于Android开发者最令人兴奋的特色是我们现在允许进入任何操作系统所允许的。换句话说，如果你要创建一个拨电话的应用程序，你可接近电话拨号程序，如果你想创建一个利用电话的内在GPS的应用程序（如果配备），你可以接近它。对于开发者创建动态的和令人感兴趣的应用程序的可能性现在是宽阔开放了。在这些特色中最顶级的是从Android网站可获得的平衡，Google已经投放一些它自己非常逗弄的特色。Android应用程序开发者将能够去把自己的应用程序连接到Google提供的已经存在的程序（例如GoogleMaps、不所不在的Google搜索）上。假设你想写一个获取一个打进电话的发出地的Google地图，或者你想能够存储你联系的一般搜索结果；利用Android可能性的大门已经成为直冲的开放和宽阔。
第二章将开始你的Android开发之旅。你将学到怎样和为什么使用特殊的开发环境或综合完整的开发环境（（IDE），并且你将会下载和安装JavaIDEEclipse。
专家咨询
Q:Google和开放手机联盟的区别是什么？
A:Google是开放手机联盟的成员之一。在在Google收购原来的Android的开发商，在开放手机联盟组织下发布了这个操作系统。
Q：是否Android有能力运行任何Linux软件？
A:不是必需的。我确认将会有方法打破许多任何开源的系统，应用程序需要被编译后利用AndroidSDK在Android上运行。主要原因是Android应用程序执行文件是一种特殊的格式；这将在后面章节讨论。
计算机专业外文文献及翻译
微软Visual Studio 1微软Visual Studio Visual Studio 是微软公司推出的开发环境，Visual Studio可以用来创建Windows平台下的Windows应用程序和网络应用程序，也可以用来创建网络服务、智能设备应用程序和Office 插件。Visual Studio是一个来自微软的集成开发环境IDE，它可以用来开发由微软视窗，视窗手机，Windows CE、.NET框架、.NET精简框架和微软的Silverlight支持的控制台和图形用户界面的应用程序以及Windows窗体应用程序，网站，Web应用程序和网络服务中的本地代码连同托管代码。 Visual Studio包含一个由智能感知和代码重构支持的代码编辑器。集成的调试工作既作为一个源代码级调试器又可以作为一台机器级调试器。其他内置工具包括一个窗体设计的GUI应用程序，网页设计师，类设计师，数据库架构设计师。它有几乎各个层面的插件增强功能，包括增加对支持源代码控制系统（如Subversion和Visual SourceSafe）并添加新的工具集设计和可视化编辑器，如特定于域的语言或用于其他方面的软件开发生命周期的工具（例如Team Foundation Server的客户端：团队资源管理器）。 Visual Studio支持不同的编程语言的服务方式的语言，它允许代码编辑器和调试器（在不同程度上）支持几乎所有的编程语言，提供了一个语言特定服务的存在。内置的语言中包括C/C + +中（通过Visual C++）,https://www.wendangku.net/doc/a29730555.html,（通过Visual https://www.wendangku.net/doc/a29730555.html,），C＃中（通过Visual C＃）和F＃（作为Visual Studio 2010），为支持其他语言，如M,Python,和Ruby等，可通过安装单独的语言服务。它也支持的 XML/XSLT,HTML/XHTML ,JavaScript和CSS.为特定用户提供服务的Visual Studio也是存在的：微软Visual Basic，Visual J＃、Visual C＃和Visual C++。 微软提供了“直通车”的Visual Studio 2010组件的Visual Basic和Visual C＃和Visual C + +，和Visual Web Developer版本，不需任何费用。Visual Studio 2010、2008年和2005专业版，以及Visual Studio 2005的特定语言版本（Visual Basic、C++、C＃、J＃），通过微软的下载DreamSpark计划，对学生免费。 2架构 Visual Studio不支持任何编程语言，解决方案或工具本质。相反，它允许插入各种功能。特定的功能是作为一个VS压缩包的代码。安装时，这个功能可以从服务器得到。IDE提供三项服务：SVsSolution，它提供了能够列举的项目和解决方案; SVsUIShell，它提供了窗口和用户界面功能（包括标签，工具栏和工具窗口）和SVsShell，它处理VS压缩包的注册。此外，IDE还可以负责协调和服务之间实现通信。所有的编辑器，设计器，项目类型和其他工具都是VS压缩包存在。Visual Studio 使用COM访问VSPackage。在Visual Studio SDK中还包括了管理软件包框架(MPF)，这是一套管理的允许在写的CLI兼容的语言的任何围绕COM的接口。然而，MPF并不提供所有的Visual Studio COM 功能。
外文翻译
Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the
外文文献翻译——参考格式
广东工业大学华立学院 本科毕业设计（论文） 外文参考文献译文及原文 系部经济学部 专业经济学 年级 2007级 班级名称 07经济学6班 学号 16020706001 学生姓名张瑜琴 指导教师陈锶 2011 年05月
目录 1挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺 (1) 2什么商业银行带给小额贷款和什么把他们留在外 (2) 3 商业银行的四个模型进入小额贷款之内 (4) 3.1内在的单位 (4) 3.2财务子公司 (5) 3.3策略的同盟 (5) 3.4服务公司模型 (6) 4 合法的形式和操作的结构比较 (8) 5 服务的个案研究公司模型：厄瓜多尔和Haiti5 (9)
1 挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺 商业银行已经是逐渐重要的运动员在拉丁美洲中的小额贷款服务的发展2到小额贷款市场是小额贷款的好消息客户因为银行能提供他们一完整类型的财务的服务，包括信用，储蓄和以费用为基础的服务。整体而言，它也对小额贷款重要，因为与他们广泛的身体、财务的和人类。如果商业银行变成重的运动员在小额贷款，他们能提供非常强烈的竞争到传统的小额贷款机构。资源，银行能廉宜地发射而且扩张小额贷款服务rela tively。如果商业广告银行在小额贷款中成为严重的运动员，他们能提出非常强烈的竞争给传统的小额贷款机构。然而，小额贷款社区里面有知觉哪一商业银行进入进入小额贷款将会是短命或浅的。举例来说，有知觉哪一商业银行首先可能不搬进小额贷款因为时候建立小额贷款操作到一个有利润的水平超过银行的标准投资时间地平线。或，在进入小额贷款，银行之后可能移动在－上面藉由增加贷款数量销售取利润最大值－或者更坏的事，退出如果他们是不满意与小额贷款的收益性的水平。这些知觉已经被特性加燃料商业银行的情形进入小额贷款和后来的出口之内。在最极端的，一些开业者已经甚至宣布，”降低尺度死！”而且抛弃了与主意合作的商业银行。 在最 signific 看得到的地方，蚂蚁利益商业银行可能带给小额贷款，国际的ACCION 发展发射而且扩张的和一些商业银行的关系小额贷款操作。在这些情形的大部分方面， ACCION 和它的合伙人正在使用方法，已知的当做服务公司模型，表演早答应当做一个能工作的方法克服真正的。 商业银行的障碍进入和穿越建立长命的小额贷款操作一个商业银行 这论文描述如何服务公司模型、住址商业银行中的主要议题进入进小额贷款，监定成功建立的因素动作井小额贷款服务公司，和礼物结果和小额贷款的课servic e 公司用最长的经验，在海地和审判官席 del 的 SOGEBANK│ SOGESOL 初期结果指出那这服务公司模型表现一重要的突破在促成商业银行进入和留在小额贷款。在厄瓜多尔的 Pichincha│ CREDIFE。初期结果指出服务公司模型在促成商业广告中表现一次重要的突破银行进入而且留在小额贷款。
外文翻译范例
要求：选择一篇和自己论文或者自己专业相关的外文进行翻译，英文字符数在6000-7000字符（注：可以继续按原文的一部分）。排版格式按照下文 公司的核心竞争力 原文来源：The Core Competence of the Corporation, Research Report on Harvard Business Review,1990 至少有三种检验方法可以用来确定公司的核心竞争力。首先，核心竞争力能够为公司进入多个市场提供方便。举例来说，显示器系统方面的核心竞争力能够使一家公司涉足计算器、微型电视机、手提电脑显示屏以及汽车仪表盘等广泛的业务领域，这就是卡西欧公司进军手持式电视机市场不足为奇的原因。第二，核心竞争力应当对最终产品为客户带来的可感知价值有重大贡献。显然，本田公司的发动机专长满足了这个条件。 最后一点，核心竞争力应当是竞争对手难以模仿的。如果核心竞争力是各项技术和生产技能的复杂的融合，那么这项能力就难以被竞争对手模仿。竞争对手或许能够获得核心竞争力中的几种技术，但是要复制其内部协调与学习的整体模式却非常困难。在20世纪60年代初期，JVC决定致力于录像带技术方面的核心竞争力，这个核心竞争力就通过了我们上述的三项检验。20世纪70年代末美国的RCA公司决心开发以唱针为基础的视频转动式系统，这个项目则不能通过上述三项检验。 。。。。。。。。。。。 The Core Competence of the Corporation The Core Competence of the Corporation Research Report on Harvard Business Review,1990 The distinction we observed in the way NEC and GTE conceived of themselves a portfolio of competencies versus a portfolio of businesses was repeated across many industries. From 1980 to 1988, Canon grew by 264%, Honda by 200%. Compare that with Xerox and Chrysler. And if Western managers were once anxious about the low cost and high quality of Japanese imports, they are now overwhelmed by the pace at which Japanese rivals are inventing new markets, creating new products, and enhancing them. Canon has given us personal copiers; Honda has moved from motorcycles to four wheel off road buggies. Sony developed the 8mm camcorder, Yamaha, the digital piano. Komatsu developed an underwater remote controlled bulldozer, while Casio's latest gambit is a small screen color LCD television. Who would have anticipated the evolution of these vanguard markets? In more established markets, the Japanese challenge has been just as disquieting. Japanese companies are generating a blizzard of features and functional enhancements that bring technological sophistication to everyday products. Japanese car producers have been pioneering four wheel steering, four valve-per cylinder engines, in car navigation systems, and sophisticated
外文资料及其翻译
A Wavelet Based Approach for Fast Detection of Internal Fault in Power Transformers The power transformer is one of the most expensive elements of power system and its protection is an essential part of the overall system protection strategy. The differential protection provides the best protection for power transformer. Its operation principle is based on this point that the differential current during an internal fault is higher than normal condition. But, a large transient current (inrush current) can cause mal-operation of differential relays. Then, studies for the improvement of the transformer protection have focused on discrimination between internal short circuit faults and inrush currents in transformers. The magnetizing inrush current has a large second order harmonic component in comparison to internal faults. Therefore , some transformer protection systems are designed to halt operating during the inrush current by sensing this large second order harmonic. The second harmonic component in the magnetizing inrush currents tend to be relatively small in modern large power transformers because of improvements in the power transformer core materials. Also , it has been seen that the fault current can contain higher second order harmonics than the inrush current due to nonlinear fault resistance, CT saturation .the distributed capacitance in the transmission line, which transformer is connected to, or due to the use of extra high voltage underground cables. Various methods have been suggested for overcoming this protection system mal-operation. This paper presents a wavelet based method for discrimination among inrush current, internal short circuit ,external short circuit and energizing and it is not affected by CT saturation and it is able to detect internal faults while transformer energization. Unlike Artificial Neural Network and Fuzzy logic based algorithms. This approach is not system dependent. The operating time of the scheme is less than 10ms. The Daubechies mother wavelet is used with a sample rate of 5 kHz. Then , the differential currents of the three phases are decomposed into two details and only the second level will be considered by using db5 mother wavelet. Discrete Wavelet Transform The wavelet transform is a powerful tool to extract information from the non-stationary signals simultaneously in both time and frequency domains. The ability of the wavelet transform to focus on short time intervals for high-frequency components and long intervals for low-frequency components improves the analysis
毕业设计外文翻译资料
外文出处： 《Exploiting Software How to Break Code》By Greg Hoglund, Gary McGraw Publisher : Addison Wesley Pub Date : February 17, 2004 ISBN : 0-201-78695-8 译文标题： JDBC接口技术 译文： JDBC是一种可用于执行SQL语句的JavaAPI（ApplicationProgrammingInterface应用程序设计接口）。它由一些Java语言编写的类和界面组成。JDBC为数据库应用开发人员、数据库前台工具开发人员提供了一种标准的应用程序设计接口，使开发人员可以用纯Java语言编写完整的数据库应用程序。 一、ODBC到JDBC的发展历程 说到JDBC，很容易让人联想到另一个十分熟悉的字眼“ODBC”。它们之间有没有联系呢？如果有，那么它们之间又是怎样的关系呢？ ODBC是OpenDatabaseConnectivity的英文简写。它是一种用来在相关或不相关的数据库管理系统（DBMS）中存取数据的，用C语言实现的，标准应用程序数据接口。通过ODBCAPI，应用程序可以存取保存在多种不同数据库管理系统（DBMS）中的数据，而不论每个DBMS使用了何种数据存储格式和编程接口。 1．ODBC的结构模型 ODBC的结构包括四个主要部分：应用程序接口、驱动器管理器、数据库驱动器和数据源。应用程序接口：屏蔽不同的ODBC数据库驱动器之间函数调用的差别，为用户提供统一的SQL编程接口。 驱动器管理器：为应用程序装载数据库驱动器。 数据库驱动器：实现ODBC的函数调用，提供对特定数据源的SQL请求。如果需要，数据库驱动器将修改应用程序的请求，使得请求符合相关的DBMS所支持的文法。 数据源：由用户想要存取的数据以及与它相关的操作系统、DBMS和用于访问DBMS的网络平台组成。 虽然ODBC驱动器管理器的主要目的是加载数据库驱动器，以便ODBC函数调用，但是数据库驱动器本身也执行ODBC函数调用，并与数据库相互配合。因此当应用系统发出调用与数据源进行连接时，数据库驱动器能管理通信协议。当建立起与数据源的连接时，数据库驱动器便能处理应用系统向DBMS发出的请求，对分析或发自数据源的设计进行必要的翻译，并将结果返回给应用系统。 2．JDBC的诞生 自从Java语言于1995年5月正式公布以来，Java风靡全球。出现大量的用java语言编写的程序，其中也包括数据库应用程序。由于没有一个Java语言的API，编程人员不得不在Java程序中加入C语言的ODBC函数调用。这就使很多Java的优秀特性无法充分发挥，比如平台无关性、面向对象特性等。随着越来越多的编程人员对Java语言的日益喜爱，越来越多的公司在Java程序开发上投入的精力日益增加，对java语言接口的访问数据库的API 的要求越来越强烈。也由于ODBC的有其不足之处，比如它并不容易使用，没有面向对象的特性等等，SUN公司决定开发一Java语言为接口的数据库应用程序开发接口。在JDK1．x 版本中，JDBC只是一个可选部件，到了JDK1．1公布时，SQL类包（也就是JDBCAPI）
Web应用程序安全外文翻译参考文献
Web应用程序安全外文翻译参考文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) 原文： Basic Security Practices for Web Applications Even if you have limited experience with and knowledge of application security, there are basic measures that you should take to help protect your Web applications. The following sections in this topic provide minimum-security guidelines that apply to all Web applications.General Web Application Security Recommendations;Run Applications with Minimum Privileges ;Know Your Users; Guard Against Malicious User Input;Access Databases Securely;Create Safe Error Messages;Keep Sensitive Information Safely;Use Cookies Securely;Guard Against Denial-of-Service Threats. 1. General Web Application Security Recommendations
3英文文献及翻译格式示例
哈尔滨工业大学毕业设计（论文） 英文原文（原文也可以直接将PDF版打印） ASSESSING CREDIT OR DETERMINING QUANTITY? THE EVOLVING ROLE OF RATING AGENCIES Lynnette D. Purda* This version: April 21, 2011 Abstract Over the past ten years, credit rating agencies have come under intense criticism from both practitioners and academics, first for their failure to identify problems resulting in bankruptcies at Enron and Worldcom and second for providing overly optimistic ratings for structured finance products. While many investors question the value of rating agencies in light of these criticisms, they have proven remarkably resilient. This paper provides a brief background on how rating agencies secured competitive advantages in evaluating credit quality. It then reviews the empirical evidence on the information content of ratings given these advantages. I argue that the information content of ratings stems from two intertwined sources: 1) information related to credit quality and 2) information related to the firm’s ability to access debt. Based on this evidence, I suggest that the dominant role for ratings today is as a benchmark for financial contracting. In this way, ratings remain influential in establishing the supply and demand of debt securities. 译文 评级机构的发展的作用评估信用还是决定数量？ 本文：2011.4.21 摘要 在过去的十年，信用评级机构一直处于来自实践者和学者的激烈的批评中，首先他们未能发现问题，导致安然和世通破产；其次对结构性金融产品提供过于乐观的评级。虽然许多投资者因为这些批评对评级机构的价值提出了质疑，但他们仍然被证明是相当有活力的。这篇文章首先在评估机构如何在信用评级质量中获得竞争优势提供一个简单地背景介绍，然后考虑到这些优势回顾了一些信息内容方面的评级经验证据。个人认为信息内容的评级来自两种交织在一起（错综复杂）的来源：1）和信贷质量相关的信息；2)和公司获取债务资本能力相关的信息。以此为据，我建议当前评级的主导作用是作为基准的金融收缩。以这种方式，在建立债券的供应和需求方面评级仍然是有效的。 - -1
外文文献及翻译
文献翻译 原文 Combining JSP and Servlets The technology of JSP and Servlet is the most important technology which use Java technology to exploit request of server, and it is also the standard which exploit business application .Java developers prefer to use it for a variety of reasons, one of which is already familiar with the Java language for the development of this technology are easy to learn Java to the other is "a preparation, run everywhere" to bring the concept of Web applications, To achieve a "one-prepared everywhere realized." And more importantly, if followed some of the principles of good design, it can be said of separating and content to create high-quality, reusable, easy to maintain and modify the application. For example, if the document in HTML embedded Java code too much (script), will lead the developed application is extremely complex, difficult to read, it is not easy reuse, but also for future maintenance and modification will also cause difficulties. In fact, CSDN the JSP / Servlet forum, can often see some questions, the code is very long, can logic is not very clear, a large number of HTML and Java code mixed together. This is the random development of the defects. Early dynamic pages mainly CGI (Common Gateway Interface, public Gateway Interface) technology, you can use different languages of the CGI programs, such as VB, C / C + + or Delphi, and so on. Though the technology of CGI is developed and powerful, because of difficulties in programming, and low efficiency, modify complex shortcomings, it is gradually being replaced by the trend. Of all the new technology, JSP / Servlet with more efficient and easy to program, more powerful, more secure and has a good portability, they have been many people believe that the future is the most dynamic site of the future development of technology. Similar to CGI, Servlet support request / response model. When a customer submit a request to the server, the server presented the request Servlet, Servlet responsible for handling requests and generate a response, and then gave the server, and then from the server sent to
引进外资外文翻译资料
河南科技学院新科学院 2013届本科毕业生论文（设计） 英文文献及翻译 Foreign capital inflows and welfare in an economy with imperfect competition 学生姓名：王艳杰 所在院系：经济系 所学专业：国际经济与贸易 导师姓名：侯黎杰 完成时间：2013年4月15日
Foreign capital inflows and welfare in an economy with imperfect competition Abstract:This paper examines the resource allocational and welfare effects of exogenous inflows of foreign capital in a general-equilibrium model with oligopolistic competition and unemployment. Although the welfare impact for the short run is ambiguous and dependent upon the strength of excess profits and scale economies relative to unemployment in manufacturing, in the long run additional inflows of foreign capital always improve national welfare with capital mobility. Hence, attracting foreign capital remains a sound policy for economies characterized by imperfect competition, scale economies,and regional unemployment. Keywords: International capital mobility; Imperfect competition; Welfare 1.Introduction The welfare effects of exogenous inflows of foreign capital in the presence of trade restrictions have been extensively studied. Brecher and Diaz Alejandro (1977) show that when imports are subject to tariffs, an introduction of fo reign capital inflows accentuates the tariff distortion and hence reduces national welfare if the import-competing sector is relatively capital-intensive. In contrast, Dei (1985) shows that when imports are restricted by quotas,foreign capital inflows in the presence of foreign-owned capital always improve welfare by depressing the rental and so lowering the payments to existing foreign-owned capital. Recently, Neary (1981), using a common framework for both tariffs and quotas, obtains more general results of foreign capital inflows; the welfare effect of such inflows depends crucially on whether foreign-owned capital exists initially in the home country. In addition, Khan (1982) and Grinols (1991) have examined the effects of foreign capital inflows for a generalized Harris-Todaro economy under tariff protection. Khan finds that the result by Brecher and Diaz Alejandro is still valid even in the presence of unemployment, whereas Grinols argues that increased foreign capital need not be detrimental to welfare if the opportunity costs of labor are sufficiently low. Noteworthy is that the models used by these authors are all based upon the premise of perfect competition along with constant returns-to-scale technology. Although perfect competition serves as a useful assumption in crystallizing theoretical insights, it nevertheless fails to depict many of the real-world phenomena. The real-world economy is characterized, to a large extent, by imperfect competition and economies of scale. The policy implications of imperfect competition and economies