SAT写作例子整理(中英文)

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思想家

孔子(前551—前479)

孔子，名丘，字仲尼。鲁国陬邑(今山东曲阜东南)人。先世是宋国贵族，避难迁鲁。他出生时，家世已经没落。年轻时做过季孙氏的委吏(管仓库)和乘田(管繁殖牲口)等。三十多岁到齐国，几年没有得到齐君的重用，又回到鲁国，聚徒讲学。五十多岁时，由鲁国中都宰(都城行政长官)升任司寇(掌管刑狱、纠察等事)。后又曾周游宋、卫、蔡、齐、楚等国。晚年在鲁国编订古代文化典籍《诗》《尚书》《春秋》等，教授门徒。孔子的弟子曾将他的谈话和他与门徒的问答，辑成《论语》一书，这是研究孔子思想的主要资料。

Confucius(circa 551-479 BC)

One of the most famous people in ancient China was a wise philosopher named Confucius. He sometimes went by the names Kong Zi though he was born - Kong Qiu - styled Zhong Ni. He was born in the village of Zou in the country of Lu.

This Chinese man was a well-known leader in philosophy and he also made many wise phrases and theories about the law, life, and the government. Confucius is famous for his philosophy because he made many wise sayings in ancient China that helped many people learn about nature, the world, and the human behavior. He also helped the government and the emperor by teaching them lessons on how the emperor should rule his kingdom successfully.

Confucius was born in a poor family in the year 551 B.C., and he was born in the state of Lu. His original name was K'ung Ch'iu. His father, commander of a district in Lu, died three years after Confucius was born, leaving the family in poverty; but Confucius nevertheless received a fine education. He was married at the age of 19 and had one son and two daughters.

He worked as a keeper of a market. Then he was a farm worker who took care of parks and farm animals. When he was 20, he worked for the governor of his district.

Key words: philosophy poor childhood ancient China

亚里士多德（公元前384-322 ）

元前384年，亚里士多德生于富拉基亚的斯塔基尔希腊移民区。他的父亲是马其顿国王腓力二世的宫廷侍医 ，所以他的家庭应该属于奴隶主阶级中的中产阶层。亚里士多德于公元前367年迁居到雅典，曾经学过医学，还在雅典柏拉图学院学习过很多年，是柏拉图学院的积极参加者。

从十八岁到三十八岁在亚里士多德雅典跟柏拉图学习哲学。这二十年对亚里士多德来说是个很重要的阶段，这一时期的学习和生活对他一生产生了决定性的影响。苏格拉底是柏拉图的老师，亚里士多德又受教于柏拉图，这三代师徒都是哲学史上赫赫有名的人物。

在雅典的柏拉图学园中，亚里士多德表现的很出色，柏拉图称他是“学园之灵”。但亚里士多德不是一个只崇拜权威，在学术上唯唯诺诺而没有自己的想法的人。他同大谈玄理的老师不同，他努力的收集各种图书资料，勤奋钻研，甚至为自己建立了一个图书室。在学院期间，

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亚里士多德就在思想上跟老师有了分歧。他曾经隐喻的说过，智慧不会随柏拉图一起死亡。当柏拉图到了晚年，他们师生间的分歧更大了，经常发生争吵。公元前347年，柏拉图去世后，亚里士多德在雅典又继续呆了两年，此后他开始游历各地。公元前343年，他受马其顿国王腓力二世的聘请，担任起太子亚历山大的老师。当时，亚历山大十三岁，亚里士多德四十二岁。

亚里士多德是世界古代史上最伟大的哲学家、科学家和教育家。他创立了形式逻辑学，丰富和发展了哲学的各个分支学科，对科学做出了巨大的贡献。

Aristotle

Aristotle (384-322 bc), Greek philosopher and scientist, who shares with Plato and Socrates the distinction of being the most famous of ancient philosophers. He was born at Stagira, in Macedonia, the son of a physician to the royal court. At the age of 17, he went to Athens to study at Plato's Academy. He remained there for about 20 years, as a student and then as a teacher.

When Plato died in 347 bc, Aristotle moved to Assos, a city in Asia Minor, where a friend of his, Hermias, was ruler. There he counseled Hermias and married his niece and adopted daughter, Pythias. After Hermias was captured and executed by the Persians in 345 bc, Aristotle went to Pella, the Macedonian capital, where he became the tutor of the king's young son Alexander, later known as Alexander the Great. In 335, when Alexander became king, Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school, the Lyceum. Because much of the discussion in his school took place while teachers and students were walking about the Lyceum grounds, Aristotle's school came to be known as the Peripatetic (“walking” or “strolling”) school. Upon the death of Alexander in 323 bc, strong anti-Macedonian feeling developed in Athens, and Aristotle retired to a family estate in Euboea (évvoia). He died there the following year.

Perhaps because of the influence of his father's medical profession, Aristotle's philosophy laid its principal stress on biology, in contrast to Plato's emphasis on mathematics. Aristotle regarded the world as made up of individuals (substances) occurring in fixed natural kinds (species). Each individual has its built-in specific pattern of development and grows toward proper self-realization as a specimen of its type. Growth, purpose, and direction are thus built into nature. Although science studies general kinds, according to Aristotle, these kinds find their existence in particular individuals. Science and philosophy must therefore balance, not simply choose between, the claims of empiricism (observation and sense experience) and formalism (rational deduction).

One of the most distinctive of Aristotle's philosophic contributions was a new notion of causality. Each thing or event, he thought, has more than one “reason” that helps to explain what, why, and where it is. Earlier Greek thinkers had tended to assume that only one sort of cause can be really explanatory; Aristotle proposed four. (The word Aristotle uses, aition,”a responsible, explanatory factor” is not synonymous with the word cause in its modern sense.)

Key words: ancient Greek philosopher scientist

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柏拉图（P1ato ，公元前427—前347年）出身于雅典一个名门贵族家庭，自幼受到良好的教育，20岁时师从苏格拉底研究哲学，苏格拉底死后，柏拉图曾离开雅典在外游历，12年后回到雅典，创立了阿加德米学园，在那里讲学直到逝世为止。“柏拉图是古典时代著作丰富而作品似乎完整齐全留传下来的唯一作家。”在他留给后人的36篇对话录中，《理想国》和《法律篇》较集中地反映了他的教育学说，围绕培养“哲学王”的教育问题，他构思了一个庞大的教育体系。柏拉图在物质世界以外寻求事物的本原，建立了以理念论为核心的客观唯心主义哲学体系。理念论的基本内容是将理性世界和感觉世界对立起来，认为感性的具体事物不是真实的存在，在感觉世界之外还有一个永恒不变的、独立的、真实存在的理念世界。 Plato

Plato (428?-347 bc), Greek philosopher, one of the most creative and influential thinkers in Western philosophy. He was born to an aristocratic family in Athens. His father, Ariston, was believed to have descended from the early kings of Athens. Perictione, his mother, was distantly related to the 6th-century bc lawmaker Solon. When Plato was a child, his father died, and his mother married Pyrilampes, who was an associate of the statesman Pericles.

As a young man Plato had political ambitions, but he became disillusioned by the political leadership in Athens. He eventually became a disciple of Socrates , accepting his basic philosophy and dialectical style of debate: the pursuit of truth through questions, answers, and additional questions. Plato witnessed the death of Socrates at the hands of the Athenian democracy in 399 bc. Perhaps fearing for his own safety, he left Athens temporarily and traveled to Italy, Sicily, and Egypt.

In 387 Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the institution often described as the first European university. It provided a comprehensive curriculum, including such subjects as astronomy, biology, mathematics, political theory, and philosophy. Aristotle was the Academy’s most prominent student.

Plato’s theory of Forms and his theory of knowledge are so interrelated that they must be discussed together. Influenced by Socrates, Plato was convinced that knowledge is attainable. He was also convinced of two essential characteristics of knowledge. First, knowledge must be certain and infallible. Second, knowledge must have as its object that which is genuinely real as contrasted with that which is an appearance only. Because that which is fully real must, for Plato, be fixed, permanent, and unchanging, he identified the real with the ideal realm of being as opposed to the physical world of becoming. One consequence of this view was Plato’s rejection of empiricism, the claim that knowledge is derived from sense experience. He thought that propositions derived from sense experience have, at most, a degree of probability. They are not certain. Furthermore, the objects of sense experience are changeable phenomena of the physical world. Hence, objects of sense experience are not proper objects of knowledge.

Key words: Greek philosopher great tutor

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苏格拉底（前469年—前399年）是著名的古希腊哲学家。与他的学生之一是柏拉图及柏拉图的学生亚里士多德并称“希腊三贤”。 出生于伯里克利统治的雅典黄金时期，死于雅典的败落时期。（伯罗奔尼撒战争结束后的三十人僭主集团倒台后的时期)。出身贫寒，父亲是一名雕刻师，母亲为助产士。苏格拉底是一位个性鲜明，被人褒贬不一而充满传奇色彩的历史人物。 苏格拉底是柏拉图的老师，他一生未曾著述，其言论和思想多见于柏拉图和色诺芬的著作如《苏格拉底言行回忆录》。苏格拉底最后因触犯了当时权贵的利益而被冠以腐蚀青年思想之名被迫饮毒堇汁而死。 他长期靠教育为业，苏格拉底的教学方式独特，常常用启发、辩论的方式来进行教育。 苏格拉底是柏拉图哲学路线的创始者。苏格拉底重视伦理学，是古希腊第一个提出要用理性和思维去寻找普遍道德的人，他是道德哲学的创始人，他强调道德是由理性指导的，所以“美德就是知识”，认为善出于知，恶出于无知。 在欧洲哲学史上最早提出唯心主义的目的论，认为一切都是神所创造与安排的，体现了神的智慧与目的。提出了“自知自己无知”的命题，认为只有放弃对自然界的求索（因为那时神的领域），承认自己无知的人才是聪明人。最有知识的是神，知识最终从神而来，真正的知是服从神。 在逻辑学方面，亚里士多德认为苏格拉底提出归纳论证，从具体实事中找出确定的论点，并注意一般定义的方法，对概念做出精确的说明。苏格拉底的哲学思想主要认为是非有标准。传说苏格拉底的家庭生活不幸，其妻子是个泼妇。

Socrates

Socrates (469-399bc), Greek philosopher, profoundly affected Western philosophy through his influence on Plato. Born in Athens, the son of Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife, he received the regular elementary education in literature, music, and gymnastics. Later he familiarized himself with the rhetoric and dialectics of the Sophists, the speculations of the Ionian philosophers, and the general culture of Periclean Athens. Initially, Socrates followed the craft of his father; according to a former tradition, he executed a statue group of the three Graces, which stood at the entrance to the Acropolis until the 2nd century ad. In the Peloponnesian War with Sparta he served as an infantryman with conspicuous bravery at the battles of Potidaea in 432-430 bc, Delium in 424 bc, and Amphipolis in 422 bc. Socrates believed in the superiority of argument over writing and therefore spent the greater part of his mature life in the marketplace and public places of Athens, engaging in dialogue and argument with anyone who would listen or who would submit to interrogation. Socrates was reportedly unattractive in appearance and short of stature but was also extremely hardy and self-controlled. He enjoyed life immensely and achieved social popularity because of his ready wit and a keen sense of humor that was completely devoid of satire or cynicism.

Socrates' contribution to philosophy was essentially ethical in character. Belief in a purely objective understanding of such concepts as justice, love, and virtue, and the self-knowledge that he inculcated, were the basis of his teachings. He believed that all vice is the result of ignorance, and that no person is willingly bad; correspondingly, virtue is knowledge, and those who know the right will act rightly. His logic placed particular emphasis on rational argument and the quest for general definitions, as evidenced in the writings of his younger contemporary and pupil, Plato, and of Plato's pupil, Aristotle. Through the writings of these philosophers, Socrates profoundly affected the entire subsequent course of Western speculative thought.

Key words: Greek philosopher

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康德

伊曼纽·康德（1724—1804）被许多人认为是现代最伟大的哲学家。康德的生平听上去是对他这位象牙塔里的知识分子一生的戏称。他出生在普鲁士的柯尼希斯伯格，16岁的时候进入大学，在这里教书直到73岁，除了在这个城市40英里的范围内走动外，一生从未出过远门。他不到5英尺高，胸部凹陷，过着单身汉的生活，一生不变，据说这是为了保存他那脆弱的健康状况。每天早晨5点由男仆将他唤醒，花两个小时进行学习，还有两个小时讲课，写作到下午一点，然后再去一家餐馆进餐。下午3点半，他准时散步一个小时，不管天气如何。他在菩提树下的一条小路上散步，只用鼻子呼吸（他认为在户外张开嘴是不利于健康的），而且这时候不跟任何人说话。（他非常守时，邻居们都根据他每天散步的情况对表，有一天他没有准时来散步，邻居们都非常担心。这天他一直在读卢梭的《爱弥儿》，看得太入神了，以至于忘了自己。）一天余下的时间里，他会花在读书上面，并准备第二天的讲课。约在晚上9-10点间睡觉。

康德的写作和讲课涉及广泛的范围：伦理学、神学、宇宙哲学、美学、逻辑学和知识理论。他在政治和神学上都属于自由主义者，他同情法国革命，直到恐怖统治为止，他相信民主，热爱自由。他是莱布尼兹的弟子，直到中年他读了休谟然后说，“从教条主义的沉睡中醒了过来”，并得到启发，发展了一套比莱布尼兹详细得多的知识理论。

Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), German philosopher, considered by many the most influential thinker of modern times. Born in K?nigsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia), April 22, 1724, Kant received his education at the Collegium Fredericianum and the University of K?nigsberg. At the college he studied chiefly the classics, and at the university he studied physics and mathematics. After his father died, he was compelled to halt his university career and earn his living as a private tutor. In 1755, aided by a friend, he resumed his studies and obtained his doctorate. Thereafter, for 15 years he taught at the university, lecturing first on science and mathematics, but gradually enlarging his field of concentration to cover almost all branches of philosophy.

Although Kant's lectures and works written during this period established his reputation as an original philosopher, he did not receive a chair at the university until 1770, when he was made professor of logic and metaphysics. For the next 27 years he continued to teach and attracted large numbers of students to K?nigsberg. Kant's unorthodox religious teachings, which were based on rationalism rather than revelation, brought him into conflict with the government of Prussia, and in 1792 he was forbidden by Frederick William II, king of Prussia, to teach or write on religious subjects. Kant obeyed this order for five years until the death of the king and then felt released from his obligation. In 1798, the year following his retirement from the university, he published a summary of his religious views. He died February 12, 1804.

The keystone of Kant's philosophy, sometimes called critical philosophy, is contained in his Critique of Pure Reason (1781), in which he examined the bases of human knowledge and created an individual epistemology. Like earlier philosophers, Kant differentiated modes of thinking into analytic and synthetic propositions. An analytic proposition is one in which the predicate is contained in the subject, as in the statement “Black houses are houses.” The truth of this type of proposition is evident, because to state the reverse would be to make the proposition

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self-contradictory. Such propositions are called analytic because truth is discovered by the analysis of the concept itself. Synthetic propositions, on the other hand, are those that cannot be arrived at by pure analysis, as in the statement “The house is black.” All the common propositions that result from experience of the world are synthetic.

Key works: German philosopher great thinker

弗兰西斯 ·培根

弗兰西斯 ·培根（1561～1626），英国文艺复兴时期最重要的散作家、哲学家。他不但在文学、哲学上多有建树，在自然科学领域里，也取得了重大成就。培根是一位经历了诸多磨难的贵族子弟，复杂多变的生活经历丰富了他的阅历，随之而来的，使他的思想成熟，言论深邃，富含哲理。人们完全可以说弗朗西斯·培根是一位真正的现代哲学家。他的整个世界观是现世的而不是宗教的（虽然他坚信上帝）。他是一位理性主义者而不是迷信的崇拜者，是一位经验论者而不是诡辩学者。在政治上，他是一位现实主义者而不是理论家。他那渊博的学识连同精彩的文笔与科学和技术相共鸣。

Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon (1561-1626), English philosopher and statesman, one of the pioneers of modern scientific thought. Bacon was educated at Trinity College, University of Cambridge. Elected to the House of Commons in 1584, he served until 1614. He wrote letters of sound advice to Elizabeth I, queen of England, but his suggestions were never implemented, and he completely lost favor with the queen in 1593, when he opposed a bill for a royal subsidy. He regained the respect of the court, however, with the accession of James I to the English throne in 1603. Bacon proposed schemes for the union of England and Scotland and recommended measures for dealing with Roman Catholics. For these efforts he was knighted on July 23, 1603, was made a commissioner for the union of Scotland and England, and was given a pension in 1604. His Advancement of Learning was published and presented to the king in 1605. Two years later he was appointed solicitor general.

In the last session of the first Parliament held (February 1611) under James I, the differences between Crown and Commons grew critical, and Bacon took the role of mediator, despite his distrust of James's chief minister, Robert Cecil, 1st earl of Salisbury. On Salisbury's death in 1612, Bacon, in order to gain the king's attention, wrote several papers on statecraft, particularly on relations between Crown and Commons. In 1613 he was appointed attorney general.

In 1616 Bacon became a privy councillor, and in 1618 he was appointed lord chancellor and raised to the peerage as Baron Verulam. In 1620 his Novum Organum was published, and on January 26, 1621, he was created Viscount Saint Albans. In the same year he was charged by Parliament with accepting bribes. He confessed but said that he was “heartily and penitently sorry.” He submitted himself to the will of his fellow peers, who ordered him fined, imprisoned during the king's pleasure, and banished from Parliament and the court. After his release, he retired to his family residence at Gorhambury. In September 1621 the king pardoned him but prohibited his return to Parliament or the court. Bacon then resumed his writing, completing his History of Henry VII and his Latin translation of The Advancement of Learning (De Augmentis). In March 1622 he offered to make a digest of the laws, with no further consequence despite repeated petitions to James I and James's successor, Charles I. He died in London on April 9, 1626.

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Bacon's philosophy emphasized the belief that people are the servants and interpreters of nature, that truth is not derived from authority, and that knowledge is the fruit of experience. Bacon is generally credited with having contributed to logic the method known as ampliative inference, a technique of inductive reasoning. Previous logicians had practiced induction by simple enumeration, that is, drawing general conclusions from particular data. Bacon's method was to infer by use of analogy, from the characteristics or properties of the larger group to which that datum belonged, leaving to later experience the correction of evident errors. Because it added significantly to the improvement of scientific hypotheses, this method was a fundamental advancement of the scientific method. Bacon's Novum Organum successfully influenced the acceptance of accurate observation and experimentation in science. In it he maintained that all prejudices and preconceived attitudes, which he called idols, must be abandoned, whether they be the common property of the race due to common modes of thought (“idols of the tribe”), or the peculiar possession of the individual (“idols of the cave”); whether they arise from too great a dependence on language (“idols of the marketplace”), or from tradition (“idols of the theater”). The principles laid down in the Novum Organum had an important influence on the subsequent development of empiricist thought. Key words: philosopher statesman 科学家

孟德尔

孟德尔（Groegor Mendel ，1822-1884）出生于捷克摩拉维亚（当时属奥地利）的一个农民家庭，从小就在家里帮助父亲嫁接果树，在学习上已经表现出非凡的才能。1844-1848年，孟德尔在布隆大学哲学院学习神学，曾选修迪博尔（Diebl ，1770-1859）讲授的农学、果树学和葡萄栽培学等课程。1848年在维也纳大学期间，孟德尔先后师从著名物理学家多普勒（C ·Doppler ，1803-1853）、物理学家埃汀豪生（A ·Ettinghausen ）和植物生理学家翁格尔（F ·Unger ，1800-1870），这三个人对他的科学思想无疑产生了很大影响。当时大多数科学家所惯用的方法是培根式的归纳法，而多普勒则主张，先对自然现象进行分析，从分析中提出设想，然后通过实验来进行证实或否决。埃汀豪生是一位成功地应用数学分析来研究物理现象的科学家，孟德尔曾对他的大作《组合分析》仔细拜读。孟德尔后来做豌豆实验，能坚持正确的指导思想，成功地将数学统计方法用于杂种后代的分析，与这两位杰出物理学家不无关系。翁格尔当时正从事进化学说的研究，他认为研究变异是解决物种起源问题的关键，并且用这种观点去启发他的学生孟德尔。通过翁格尔，孟德尔了解了盖尔特纳的杂交工作。盖尔特纳写作的《植物杂交的实验与观察》既单调又重复，但涉及的范围很广，包含着一些极有价值的观察结果。达尔文和孟德尔都曾仔细地读过这本书。孟德尔读过的书至今还保存在捷克布隆的孟德尔纪念馆内，书中遍布记号和批注，有的内容正是以后孟德尔的实验计划里的组成部分。由此可见，一个伟大的科学思想的形成绝非偶然。

Gregor Mendel

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884), Austrian monk, whose experimental work became the basis of modern hereditary theory. Mendel was born on July 22, 1822, to a peasant family in Heinzendorf (now Hyn ?ice, Czech Republic). He entered the Augustinian monastery at Brünn (now Brno, Czech Republic), which was known as a center of learning and scientific endeavor. He later

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became a substitute teacher at the technical school in Brünn. There Mendel became actively engaged in investigating variation, heredity, and evolution in plants at the monastery's experimental garden. Between 1856 and 1863 he cultivated and tested at least 28,000 pea plants, carefully analyzing seven pairs of seed and plant characteristics. His tedious experiments resulted in the enunciation of two generalizations that later became known as the laws of heredity. His observations also led him to coin two terms still used in present-day genetics: dominance, for a trait that shows up in an offspring; and recessiveness, for a trait masked by a dominant gene.

Mendel published his important work on heredity in 1866. Despite, or perhaps because of, its descriptions of large numbers of experimental plants, which allowed him to express his results numerically and subject them to statistical analysis, this work made virtually no impression for the next 34 years. Only in 1900 was his work recognized more or less independently by three investigators, one of whom was the Dutch botanist Hugo Marie de Vries, and not until the late 1920s and the early '30s was its full significance realized, particularly in relation to evolutionary theory. As a result of years of research in population genetics, investigators were able to demonstrate that Darwinian evolution can be described in terms of the change in gene frequency of Mendelian pairs of characteristics in a population over successive generations.

Mendel's later experiments with the hawkweed Hieracium proved inconclusive, and because of the pressure of other duties he ceased his experiments on heredity by the 1870s. He died in Brünn on January 6, 1884.

Key words: father of genetics

袁隆平

袁隆平（1930-），农学家、杂交水稻育种专家。1953年西南农学院农学系毕业。历任研究员、湖南杂交水稻研究中心主任、湖南农科院名誉院长、国家杂交水稻工程技术研究中心主任，1995年当选为中国工程院院士。 袁隆平长期从事杂交水稻育种理论研究和制种技术实践。1964年首先提出培育“不育系、保持系、恢复系”三系法利用水稻杂种优势的设想并进行科学实验。1970年，与其助手李必湖和冯克珊在海南发现一株花粉败育的雄性不育野生稻，成为突破“三系”配套的关键。 1972年育成中国第一个大面积应用的水稻雄性不育系“二九南一号A”和相应的保持系“二九南一号B”，次年育成了第一个大面积推广的强优组合“南优二号”，并研究出整套制种技术。1986年提出杂交水稻育种分为“三系法品种间杂种优势利用、两系法亚种间杂种优势利用到一系法远缘杂种优势利用”的战略设想。被同行们誉为“杂交水稻之父”

Yuan Longping （1930-）

"I saw rice plants as tall as Chinese sorghum,” said Yuan Longping of a dream he once had, “each ear of rice as big as a broom and each grain of rice as huge as a peanut. I could hide in the shadow of the rice crops with a friend." Born into a poor farmer's family in 1931 and a graduate from the Southwest Agriculture Institute in 1953, Yuan began his teaching career at an agriculture school in Anjiang, Hunan Province.

He came up with an idea for hybridizing rice in the 1960s, when a series of natural disasters and inappropriate policies had plunged China into an unprecedented famine that caused many deaths. Since then, he has devoted himself to the research and development of a better rice breed. In 1964, he happened to find a natural hybrid rice plant that had obvious advantages over others. Greatly encouraged, he began to study the elements of this particular type. In 1973, in cooperation with

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others, he was able to cultivate a type of hybrid rice species which had great advantages. It yielded 20 percent more per unit than that of common ones.

The next year their research made a breakthrough in seeding. They successfully developed a set of technologies for producing indica (long-grained non-glutinous) rice, putting China in the lead worldwide in rice production. For this achievement, he was dubbed the "Father of Hybrid Rice." In 1979, their technique for hybrid rice was introduced into the United States, the first case of intellectual property rights transfer in the history of new China.

Key word s：agriculturist father of hybrid rice

约翰那什（1928-）

约翰·纳什生于1928年6月13日。父亲是电子工程师与教师，第一次世界大战的老兵。纳什小时孤独内向，虽然父母对他照顾有加，但老师认为他不合群不善社交。 纳什的数学天分大约在14岁开始展现。他在普林斯顿大学读博士时刚刚二十出头，但他的一篇关于非合作博弈的博士论文和其他相关文章，确立了他博弈论大师的地位。在20世纪50年代末，他已是闻名世界的科学家了。

然而，正当他的事业如日中天的时候，30岁的纳什得了严重的精神分裂症。他的妻子艾利西亚———麻省理工学院物理系毕业生，表现出钢铁一般的意志：她挺过了丈夫被禁闭治疗、孤立无援的日子，走过了惟一儿子同样罹患精神分裂症的震惊与哀伤……漫长的半个世纪之后，她的耐心和毅力终于创下了了不起的奇迹：和她的儿子一样，纳什教授渐渐康复，并在1994年获得诺贝尔奖经济学奖。

如今，纳什已经基本恢复正常，并重新开始科学研究。他现在是普林斯顿大学数学教授，但已经不再任教。学校经济学系经常会举办有关博弈论的论坛，纳什有时候会参加，但是他几乎从不发言，每次都是静静地来，静静地走。

John Nash （1928-）

When the young Nash had applied to graduate school at Princeton in 1948, his old Carnegie Tech professor, R.J. Duffin, wrote only one line on his letter of recommendation: "This man is a genius". It was at Princeton that Nash encountered the theory of games, then recently launched by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern. However, they had only managed to solve non-cooperative games in the case of "pure rivalries" (i.e. zero-sum). The young Nash turned to rivalries with mutual gain. His trick was the use of best-response functions and a recent theorem that had just emerged - Kakutani's fixed point-theorem. His main result, the "Nash Equilibrium", was published in 1950 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. He followed this up with a paper which introduced yet another solution concept - this time for two-person cooperative games - the "Nash Bargaining Solution" (NBS) in 1950. A 1951 paper attached his name to yet another side of economics - this time, the "Nash Programme", reflecting his methodological call for the reduction of all cooperative games into a non-cooperative framework.

His contributions to mathematics were no less remarkable. As an undergraduate, he had inadvertently (and independently) proved Brouwer's fixed point theorem. Later on, he went on to break one of Riemann's most perplexing mathematical conundrums. From then on, Nash provided breakthrough after breakthrough in mathematics.

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In 1958, on the threshold of his career, Nash got struck by paranoid schizophrenia. He lost his job at M.I.T. in 1959 (he had been tenured there in 1958 - at the age of 29) and was virtually incapicated by the disease for the next two decades or so. He roamed about Europe and America, finally, returning to Princeton where he became a sad, ghostly character on the campus - "the Phantom of Fine Hall" as Rebecca Goldstein described him in her novel, Mind-Body Problem. The disease began to evaporate in the early 1970s and Nash began to gradually to return to his work in mathematics. However, Nash himself associated his madness with his living on an "ultralogical" plane, "breathing air too rare" for most mortals, and if being "cured" meant he could no longer do any original work at that level, then, Nash argued, a remission might not be worthwhile in the end. As John Dryden once put it:

Great wits are sure to madness near allied,

And thin partitions do their bounds divide.

Key words: economist illness Nobel price winner

法拉第，迈克尔

法拉第（1791 -- 1867）是英国物理学家、化学家，也是著名的自学成才的科学家。1791年9月22日萨里郡纽因顿一个贫苦铁匠家庭。因家庭贫困仅上过几年小学，13岁时便在一家书店里当学徒。书店的工作使他有机会读到许多科学书籍。在送报、装订等工作之余，自学化学和电学，并动手做简单的实验，验证书上的内容。利用业余时间参加市哲学学会的学习活动，听自然哲学讲演，因而受到了自然科学的基础教育。由于他爱好科学研究，专心致志，受到英国化学家戴维的赏识，1813年3月由戴维举荐到皇家研究所任实验室助手。这是法拉第一生的转折点，从此他踏上了献身科学研究的道路。同年10月戴维到欧洲大陆作科学考察，讲学，法拉第作为他的秘书、助手随同前往。历时一年半，先后经过法国、瑞士、意大利、德国、比利时、荷兰等国，结识了安培、盖.吕萨克等著名学者。沿途法拉第协助戴维做了许多化学实验，这大大丰富了他的科学知识，增长了实验才干，为他后来开展独立的科学研究奠定了基础。 法拉第主要从事电学、磁学、磁光学、电化学方面的研究，他关于磁生电的跨时代的伟大发现，使人类掌握了电磁运动相互转变以及机械能和电能相互转变的方法，成为现代发电机、电动机、变压器技术的基础。

法拉第能够这样坚持10年矢志不渝地探索电磁感应现象，重要原因之一是同他关于各种自然力的统一和转化的思想密切相关的，他始终坚信自然界各种不同现象之间有着无限多的联系。也是在这一思想的指导下，他继续研究当时已知的伏打电池的电、摩擦电、温差电、伽伐尼电、电磁感应电等各种电的同一性，1832年他发表了〈不同来源的电的同一性〉论文，用大量实验论证了“不管电的来源如何，它的本性都相同”的结论，从而扫除了人们在电的本性问题认识上的种种迷雾

Faraday, Michael 1791 -- 1867

Physicist and chemist. Born September 22, 1791, in Newington, Surrey. The family soon moved to London, where young Michael, one of 10 children, picked up the rudiments of reading, writing, and arithmetic. At the age of 14, he was apprenticed to a bookbinder and bookseller. He read ravenously and attended public lectures, including some by Sir Humphry Davy. Faraday's career began when Davy, temporarily blinded in a laboratory accident, appointed Faraday as his assistant at the Royal Institution. With Davy as a teacher in analytical chemistry, Faraday advanced in his scientific apprenticeship and began independent chemical studies. By 1825, he discovered

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benzene and had become the first to describe compounds of chlorine and carbon. He adopted the atomic theory to explain that chemical qualities were the result of attraction and repulsion between united atoms. This proved to be the theoretical foundation for much of his future work.

Faraday had already done some work in magnetism and electricity, and it was in this field that he made his most outstanding contributions. His first triumph came when he found a solution to the problem of producing continuous rotation by use of electric current, thus making electric motors possible. Hans Oersted had discovered the magnetic effect of a current, but Faraday grasped the fact that a conductor at rest and a steady magnetic field do not interact and that to get an induced current either the conductor or the field has to move. On August 29, 1831, Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction.

During the next 10 years, Faraday explored and expanded the field of electricity. In 1834, he announced his famous two laws of electrolysis. Briefly, they state that for any given amount of electrical force in an electrochemical cell, chemical substances are released at the electrodes in the ratio of their chemical equivalents. He also invented the voltammeter, a device for measuring electrical charges, which was the first step toward the later standardization of electrical quantities. Faraday continued to work in his laboratory, but his health began to deteriorate and he had to stop work entirely in 1841. Almost miraculously, however, his health later improved and he resumed work in 1844. He began a search for an interaction between magnetism and light and in 1845 turned his attention from electrostatics to electromagnetism. He discovered that an intense magnetic field could rotate the plane of polarized light, a phenomenon known today as the Faraday effect. In conjunction with these experiments, he showed that all matter conducts the magnetic line of force. Objects that were good conductors he called paramagnetics, while those that conducted the force poorly he named diamagnetics. Thus, the energy of a magnet is in the space around it, not in the magnet itself. This is the fundamental idea of the field theory.

Faraday was a brilliant lecturer, and through his public lectures he did a great deal to popularize science. Shortly after he became head of the Royal Institution in 1825, he inaugurated the custom of giving a series of lectures for young people during the Christmas season. This tradition has been maintained, and over the years the series have frequently been the basis for fascinating, simply written, and informative books. Faraday died in London on August 25, 1867. The admiration of physicists for Faraday has been demonstrated by naming the unit of capacitance the farad and a unit of charge, the faraday. No other man has been doubly honored in this way. His name also appears frequently in connection with effects, laws, and apparatus. These honors are proper tribute to the man who was possibly the greatest experimentalist who ever lived.

Key words: physicist chemist

莱特兄弟

莱特兄弟是美国飞机发明家，航空先驱者。1903年成功地进行了第一架可操纵的动力飞机的持续飞行，1905年制造和飞行了第一架实用的飞机。

1867年4月16日，维尔伯·赖特出生于印第安纳米尔维尔。1871年8月19日，奥维尔·赖特出生于美国俄亥俄代顿。主教之子。早年主要靠自学设计和制造印刷机械和自行车。维尔伯

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产生动力飞行的想法是受O ．利林塔尔的影响。通过观察鹰在空中保持平衡的情况，1899年维尔伯认识到飞机要能飞行，必须能绕3个轴转动即能向两侧倾斜，能升降，能向左右转弯。1899年莱特兄弟制造第一架双翼机时安装了机械扭曲机翼，即在一侧机翼升力增加的同时，另一侧机翼升力减小，由此操纵飞机压坡度转弯或由滚转改为平飞。他们的功绩除了完成有动力的飞机飞行外，绕3个轴操纵飞机是他们对空气动力学和飞行方面的主要贡献。为了实现动力飞行，他们决定先掌握滑翔飞行技术。1900年—— 1902年制造3架双翼滑翔机并作了飞行。最后一架滑翔机有升降舵、方向舵和扭曲机翼。他们制造滑翔机时进行了大量理论工作和实验工作，包括风洞试验。他们还设计和制造了实现动力飞行所必需的螺旋桨和轻型发动机。1903年人类历史上第一架有动力装置的飞机“飞行家”1号制造成功，12月17日凌晨该机从平地起飞。第一次飞行12秒，最后一次59秒，飞行距离260米。1904年“飞行家”2号飞行成功。1905年制造的“飞行家”3号是世界上第一架实用的飞机，能转弯、倾斜、做圆圈飞行和8字飞行，续航时间超过半小时。1905年10月16日至1908年5月6日，因财政拮据，莱特兄弟未进行过一次飞行。1908年维尔伯在法国作飞行表演，5个月内飞行100多次，总飞行时间超过25小时，其中约60次带乘客飞行，有7次飞行时间超过1小时，最后一次飞行时间达2小时 20分。与此同时奥维尔也在美国作轰动一时的表演飞行，并为美国陆军制造了世界上第一架军用飞机。1909年之前，世界航空可说在莱特兄弟统治之下，他们同时在欧洲和美国制造飞机。

The Wright Brothers (Wilbur and Orville)

Aviation pioneers, inventors. Wilbur was born near Millville, Indiana, and Orville (1871--1958) was born in Dayton, Ohio. The sons of a minister of the United Brethren Church, the Wright brothers showed mechanical genius from boyhood, although neither graduated from high school. In 1892 they opened a bicycle sales and repair shop in Dayton and soon were making and selling their own bicycles. Reading about experiments with gliders spurred their interest in flight, and they built their first glider in 1899, a biplane kite with wings that could be twisted mechanically. The brothers made their first trip to Kitty Hawk, North Carolina in 1900 to conduct glider experiments on the sand hills there.

Back in Dayton they built the first wind tunnel and prepared their own tables of lift-pressures for various wing surfaces and wind speeds. They also built a powerful four-cylinder engine and an efficient propeller, and in September 1903 they returned to Kitty Hawk. Bad weather delayed the testing of this aircraft until December 17, 1903, when Orville piloted it on a flight of 12 seconds and 120 feet; Wilbur flew later in the day, staying aloft for 59 seconds to cover 852 feet. The brothers built two sturdier, more reliable planes over the next two years and in 1906 received a U.S. patent for a powered aircraft. Initially they sold their plane to the British and French governments, but in 1908 the U.S. War Department contracted for a Wright flying machine for the army. In 1909 they formed the American Wright Company and proceeded to manufacture their improved planes and to train pilots.

Wilbur, a bachelor as was his brother, died of typhoid in May 1912. In 1915, Orville - who had continued to test fly all his planes - retired from the aircraft manufacturing business to pursue his own research interests. During World I he accepted a commission as a major to serve as a consultant to the army air service and he served for many years on the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.

Key words: inventor

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贝尔（1847～1942 ）

“我知道命运掌握在我自己的手中，我知道巨大的成功马上就要到来。”贝尔曾自信地向世界这样宣告。 1847年3月3日出生于苏格兰的爱丁堡。他的父亲是一位嗓音生理学家,并且是矫正说话、教授聋人的专家。 1862年贝尔进入著名的爱丁堡大学，选择语音学作为自己的专业，贝尔通过总结父辈们的经验进步很快。 1869年22岁的贝尔受聘为美国波士顿大学语言学教授，担任声学讲座的主讲。在莫尔斯电报发明后的20多年中无数科学家试图直接用电流传递语音，贝尔也把发明电话作为自己义不容辞的责任。但由于电话是传递连续的信号而不是电报那样不连续的通断信号，在当时的难度好比登天。他在实验中发现了一个有趣现象：每次电流通断时线圈发出类似于莫尔斯电码的“滴答”声，这引起贝尔大胆的设想：如果能用电流强度模拟出声音的变化不就可以用电流传递语音了吗？随后的两年内贝尔刻苦用功掌握了电学，再加上他扎实的语言学知识，使他如同插上了翅膀。他辞去了教授职务，一心扎入发明电话的试验中。在万事俱备只缺合作者时他偶然遇到了18岁的电气工程师沃特森。两年后，经过无数次失败后他们终于制成了两台粗糙的样机，但不幸的是试验失败了，两人的声音是通过公寓的天花板而不是通过机器互相传递的。 正在他们冥思苦想之时，窗外吉他的丁冬声提醒了他们：送话器和受话器的灵敏度太低了！他们连续两天两夜自制了音箱、改进了机器。然后开始实验，刚开始沃特森只从受话器里听到嘶嘶的电流声，终于他听到了贝尔清晰的声音“沃特森先生，快来呀！我需要你?1875　年6月2日傍晚，当时贝尔28岁，沃特森21岁。他们趁热打铁，几经半年的改进，终于制成了世界上第一台实用的电话机。

Bell, Alexander Graham 1847 – 1922 （贝尔）

Inventor and educator. Born March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland. Bell is best known for perfecting the telephone to transmit vocal messages by electricity. The telephone inaugurated a new age in communication technology.

Bell’s father, Alexander Melville Bell, was an expert in vocal physiology and elocution; his grandfather, Alexander Bell, was an elocution professor. After studying at the University of Edinburgh and University College, London, Bell became his father's assistant. He taught the deaf to talk by adopting his father's system of visible speech (illustrations of speaking positions of the lips and tongue). In London he studied Hermann Ludwig von Helmholtz's experiments with tuning forks and magnets to produce complex sounds. In 1865, Bell made scientific studies of the resonance of the mouth while speaking.

In 1870, the Bells moved to Brantford, Ontario, Canada, to preserve Alexander's health. He went to Boston in 1871 to teach at Sarah Fuller's School for the Deaf, the first such school in the world. He also tutored private students, including Helen Keller. As professor of vocal physiology and speech at Boston University in 1873, he initiated conventions for teachers of the deaf. Throughout his life he continued to educate the deaf, and he founded the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf.

From 1873 to 1876, Bell experimented with a phonautograph, a multiple telegraph, and an electric speaking telegraph (the telephone). Funds came from the fathers of two of his pupils; one of these men, Gardiner Hubbard, had a deaf daughter, Mabel, who later became Bell's wife.

Key words: inventor educator

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艺术家

梵高

梵高(1853-1890)生于荷兰的一个新教徒之家。少年时，他在伦敦、巴黎和海牙为画商工作，后来还在比利时的矿工中当过传教士。1881年左右，他开始绘画。1886年去巴黎投奔其弟，初次接触了印象派的作品，对他产生影响的还有著名画家鲁本斯、日本版画和著名画家高更。 1888年，梵高开始以色彩为基础表达强烈的感情。他曾短暂与高更交往，后来神经失常，被送进精神病院。在经历多次感情上的崩溃之后，梵高于1890年在奥维尔自杀。他对野兽派及德国的表现主义有巨大影响。 梵高一生为人敏感而易怒，聪敏过人，在生前他在许多事情上很少取得成功。其个人生活不幸而且艰辛，可他却随时都有献身给别人的爱、友谊和对艺术的热情。在短短的37年人生中，梵高把生命的最重要时期贡献给了艺术。他早期画作爱用荷兰传画的褐色调，但他天性中火一般的热情使他抛弃荷兰画派的暗淡和沉寂，并迅速远离印象派———印象派对外部世界瞬间真实性的追求和他充满主体意识的精神状态相去甚远。他不是以线条而是以环境来抓住对象；他重新改变现实，以达到实实在在的真实，促成了表现主义的诞生。

Gogh, Vincent Willem van (1853-1890),

Dutch postimpressionist painter, whose work represents the archetype of expressionism, the idea of emotional spontaneity in painting. Van Gogh was born March 30, 1853, in Groot-Zundert, son of a Dutch Protestant pastor. Early in life he displayed a moody, restless temperament that was to thwart his every pursuit. By the age of 27 he had been in turn a salesman in an art gallery, a French tutor, a theological student, and an evangelist among the miners at Wasmes in Belgium. His experiences as a preacher are reflected in his first paintings of peasants and potato diggers; of these early works, the best known is the rough, earthy Potato Eaters (1885, Rijksmuseum Vincent van Gogh, Amsterdam). Dark and somber, sometimes crude, these early works evidence van Gogh's intense desire to express the misery and poverty of humanity as he saw it among the miners in Belgium.

莎士比亚

（1564～1616） 英国著名戏剧家和诗人。出生于沃里克郡斯特拉特福镇的一个富裕市民家庭，曾在当地文法学校学习。13岁时家道中落辍学经商，约1586年前往伦敦。先在剧院门前为贵族顾客看马，后逐渐成为剧院的杂役、演员、剧作家和股东。1597年在家乡购置了房产，一生的最后几年在家乡度过。

莎士比亚是16世纪后半叶到17世纪初英国最著名的作家（本·琼斯称他为“时代的灵魂”），也是欧洲文艺复兴时期人文主义文学的集大成者。他共写有37部戏剧，154首14行诗，两首长诗和其他诗歌。长诗《维纳斯与阿多尼斯》（1592～1593）和《鲁克丽丝受辱记》（1593～1594）均取材于罗马诗人维奥维德吉尔的著作，主题是描写爱情不可抗拒以及谴责违背“荣誉”观念的兽行。14行诗（1592～1598）多采用连续性的组诗形式，主题是歌颂友谊和爱情。

Shakespeare, William 1564 – 1616 （莎士比亚）

Born in 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England (historians believe Shakespeare was born on April 23, the same day he died in 1616). The son of John Shakespeare, a glover, and Mary Arden, of farming stock. Much uncertainty surrounds Shakespeare's early life. He was the

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eldest of three sons, and there were four daughters. He was educated at the local grammar school, and married Anne Hathaway, from a local farming family, in 1582. She bore him a daughter, Susanna, in 1583, and twins, Hamnet and Judith, in 1585.

Shakespeare moved to London, possibly in 1591, and became an actor. From 1592 to 1594, when the theatres were closed for the plague, he wrote his poems "Venus and Adonis" and "The Rape of Lucrece." His sonnets, known by 1598, though not published until 1609, fall into two groups: 1 to 126 are addressed to a fair young man, and 127 to 154 to a "dark lady" who holds both the young man and the poet in thrall. Who these people are has provided an exercise in detection for numerous critics. The first evidence of his association with the stage is in 1594, when he was acting with the Lord Chamberlain's company of players, later "the King's Men'. When the company built the Globe Theatre south of the Thames in 1597, he became a partner, living modestly at a house in Silver Street until c.1606, then moving near the Globe. He returned to Stratford c.1610, living as a country gentleman at his house, New Place. His will was made in March 1616, a few months before he died, and he was buried at Stratford.

The modern era of Shakespeare scholarship has been marked by an enormous amount of investigation into the authorship, text, and chronology of the plays, including detailed studies of the age in which he lived, and of the Elizabethan stage. Authorship is still a controversial subject for certain plays, such as Titus Andronicus, Two Noble Kinsmen, and Henry VI, part I. This has involved detailed studies of the various editions of the plays, in particular the different quarto editions, and the first collected works, The First Folio of 1623. It is conventional to group the plays into early, middle, and late periods, and to distinguish comedies, tragedies, and histories, recognizing other groups that do not fall neatly into these categories.

Key words: playwright poet.

巴赫（1685-1750）

巴赫的音乐，可以说是构成欧洲音乐殿堂的一根重要支柱。对于整个巴罗克时期的音乐来说，巴赫的音乐成就，可以说是架在这座殿堂上的圆顶；对于其后的欧洲音乐发展来说，虽然直到19世纪巴赫才具有真正的影响力，但是这种影响力一旦产生，便对欧洲音乐的发展产生了深远的影响。

在德国的图林根州“巴赫们”曾成为音乐家的代名词，这是因为巴赫一族，可以上溯到好几代人，其职业都是一种组成行会的音乐职业，世家相传，他们属于音乐艺人这样一种特殊社会阶层。在领主的宫廷中，巴赫的社会地位是仆役性质的，与厨子列在同一个名册上。他不具有自由音乐家的社会地位，其创作的作品并不能直接成为其经济收入的来源，而是归于领主所有。即使成为托马斯的宫廷乐长，他也很难维持在莱比锡的生活，死后也无遗产，不似贝多芬死后还留有股票。他的作品除了在教堂中，在当时演出也很少，死后长期默默无闻。 J.S.巴赫是一个虔诚的宗教徒，他的音乐大多为表达对主的崇拜，表现主所创造的世界的和谐，表达的不是情感而是信仰。J.S.巴赫认为，世间万物都是上帝之创造、之恩赐，都在上帝的光辉沐浴之下，音乐所要歌颂的是这种上帝创造的和谐，和谐之中对那种上帝之光的仰望。在J.S.巴赫看来，音乐是他通向天国，与上帝对话的云梯。音乐本身就是天堂的奇迹。音乐方式，是通过隐蔽的理性的方式使人感觉上帝的存在。

Johann Sebastian Bach （1685-1750）

Bach was born on March 21, 1685 in Eisenach, Germany. His career is among the wonders of

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music. Bach wrote hundreds of compositions and is considered the greatest genius of baroque music.

Bach was a devout Lutheran and his religious views are reflected in his works. He felt that everything people do and believe has to do with religion. Bach, and many other composers of his time, believed that baroque music helped protect people from the advance of doubt bred by Renaissance ideas of scientific, rational inquiry. Bach believed he could best serve his church, and the people around him, through his music.

名言：There's nothing remarkable about it. All one has to do is hit the right keys at the right time and the instrument plays itself.

Key words: musician

艾伦.科普兰

艾伦.科普兰（1900～1990）美国作曲家、指挥家、钢琴家、演讲家、作家等。1900年生于布鲁克林。13岁开始学习钢琴，中学毕业后，随戈德马克学习对位与和声，1921年在巴黎枫丹白露音乐学校，从布朗热学作曲。1924年回国，后任教于多所音乐院校。1935～1944年受聘于哈佛大学。

科普兰一生致力于提倡美国音乐，他的讲学、创作活动、社会活动始终以此为宗旨和目的。他的创作风格的变化实是当时各种音乐流派存在的一种写照，反映了音乐发展的状况。早期作品乐队组曲《剧场音乐》（1925）有爵士乐因素，是对民族风格的初试；《钢琴变奏曲》（1930）、《短交响曲》（1933）即为新古典主义影响的结果；1935年以后，进入创作旺盛阶段，写下了一系列能被听众广泛接受的民族音乐，如舞剧音乐《小伙子比利》（1938）、《牧区竞技》（1942）、《阿巴拉契亚之春》（1944）、管弦乐曲《墨西哥沙龙》（1936）、《林肯肖像》（朗诵与乐队，1942）等，奠定了他为美国学派代表人物的地位；晚期创作中还采用了十二音技法。70年代以后很少创作。此外，科普兰对美国的普及音乐教育、发展美国现代音乐事业做出了极大贡献。

Aaron Copland （1900～1990）

Aaron Copland was born on November 14, 1900 in New York City. His musical works ranged from ballet and orchestral music to choral music and movie scores. For the better part of four decades Aaron Copland was considered the premier American composer.

Copland learned to play piano from an older sister. By the time he was fifteen he had decided to become a composer. His first tentative steps included a correspondence course in writing harmony. In 1921 Copland traveled to Paris to attend the newly founded music school for Americans at Fontainebleau. He was the first American student of the brilliant teacher, Nadia Boulanger. After three years in Paris he returned to New York with his first major commission, writing an organ concerto for the American appearances of Madame Boulanger. His "Symphony for Organ and Orchestra" premiered in at Carnagie Hall in 1925.

Copland's growth as a composer mirrored important trends of his time. After his return from Paris he worked with jazz rhythms in his "Piano Concerto" (1926). His "Piano Variations" (1930) was strongly influenced by Igor Stravinsky's Neoclassicism. In 1936 he changed his orientation toward a simpler style. He felt this made his music more meaningful to the large music-loving audience

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being created by radio and the movies. His most important works during this period were based on American folk lore including "Billy the Kid" (1938) and "Rodeo" (1942). Other works during this period were a series of movie scores including "Of Mice and Men" (1938) and "The Heiress" (1948). In his later years Copland's work reflected the serial techniques of the so-called 12-tone school of Arnold Schoenberg. Notable among these was "Connotations" (1962) commissioned for the opening of Lincoln Center.

After 1970 Copland stopped composing, though he continued to lecture and conduct through the mid-1980s. He died on December 2, 1990 at the Phelps Memorial Hospital in Tarrytown (Westchester County), New York.

名言：Inspiration may be a form of super-consciousness, or perhaps of subconsciousness—I wouldn't know. But I am sure it is the antithesis of self-consciousness.

Key words: musician educator

莫奈(1840～1926)

克劳德·莫奈是印象派最具代表性的大画家。19世纪末到20世纪初流行于欧洲各国的印象派，注重人对生活的感觉和印象，主张到大自然中，尊重自然和人的感觉印象，影响力极为深远。

印象主义画家吸取当时科学上的光学理论，认为色是在光的照射下而产生的，在不同时间、环境、气候等客观条件下，受不同光的支配而有各种不同色彩。他们通过写生，发现过去长期不被注意的色彩现象，从而在绘画色彩上引起了重大的革新。例如，过去一般认为草是绿色的，但是如果眺望远方的原野，草却不是绿色，而是青色，如果在晚霞照射下看草，就成为红色或灰色。

我们欣赏莫奈的油画连作“麦草堆”、 “白杨木”、 “浮翁大教堂”等，最能看出这种特征。他对同一主题反复在一天中的不同时间写生描绘，画出不同的光景与气氛，显出光与色的高明度及鲜明感，交织成光与色彩的华丽交响乐，创作了印象派的颠峰之作。

莫奈一生遗留五百件素描，两干多幅油画，两干七百封信件。八十六年的生涯，生命力旺盛，创作量庞大。他的足迹从巴黎大街到地中海岸，从法国到伦敦、威尼斯、挪威，经常在各地旅行写生，全力以赴地作风景画。莫奈从早期就迷恋表达阳光，他一生的精力，主要用在表现外光的探索上，一幅幅画作，对外光和空气氛围作了淋漓尽致的描绘。而随着印象派诞生一百多年来受人们的喜爱，莫奈成为享誉非常长久的画家。他画中的各种风景、光波粼粼的水景、花开的原野、浸淫在阳光下行乐度假的人们，吸引无数人的欣赏、惊叹与灵感。莫奈画作的群众魅力，深刻印证了艺术的永恒与人类的文化亲和力。

Edouard Manet(1840～1926)

Manet was born on January 23, 1832 in Paris. He is often identified with the "Impressionists," and was influenced by them. However, because of the Paris art world's generally hostile regard for "Impressionism," he chose not to exhibit with them. He preferred to show his work in the more conservative exhibitions sponsored by the French government.

Manet learned to paint in the traditional style, but his work became more spontaneous after his exposure to Claude Monet and the other "Impressionists." He used expressive outline, severe

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lighting contrasts, bold color and rich texture to portray the world around him.

Manet scandalized the people of Paris with a number of works containing nudes painted in bold poses with direct, outward gazes. While it was popular during his time to paint scenes from the Bible and ancient history, Manet painted scenes from 19th Century history, including one work featuring the execution of Emperor Maximillian of Mexico in 1867.

Key words: painter impressionists

达·芬奇(1452 – 1519)

列奥纳多·达·芬奇1452年生于佛罗伦萨芬奇镇附近的安基亚诺村，1519年殁于法国安波斯城克鲁堡，是欧洲文艺复兴最杰出的代表。他不仅是著名的艺术家，而且是伟大的科学家。他是一位知识渊博、多才多艺的人，恩格斯对他的评价很高，赞扬他"不仅是大画家，而且与是大数学家、力学家和工程师"。达·芬奇从小勤奋好学，天赋聪明。从孩提时代开始，他就喜爱画画，人们称他为小画家。他的父亲赛尔·比埃罗·达·芬奇是佛罗伦萨的公证人。达·芬奇是私生子，5岁时，生母被其父遗弃，他从小就跟祖父在乡下生活。由于他天资过人，14岁时拜艺术家委罗基奥为师，到画室学画。他认真学习和钻研各方面的知识，为后来在艺术及科学方面的提高打下了良好的基础。

达·芬奇一生的艺术活动分为早、中、晚三个时期，早期活动在佛罗伦萨，中期在米兰和佛罗伦萨峡谷地，晚期在米兰。1513~1516年，他奔走于罗马和佛罗伦萨之间。他一生创作颇丰，主要成就有以下几个方面：绘画方面创作了《蒙娜丽莎》《最后的晚餐》等一系列重要作品；音乐方面能唱歌弹琴，吹奏笛子，谱曲作词，还主持文艺演出活动，设计舞台背景和服装、道具；医学方面，医学家们公认达?芬奇是近代生理解剖的始祖；水利工程方面，达?芬奇对水利学的研究比意大利的学者克斯铁列早一个世纪，而且其设计的一些水利设施至今仍在发挥作用。除此之外，达芬奇还在物理，数学，天文，机械等方面具有重要的贡献。 Leonardo da Vinci(1452 – 1519)

Leonardo da Vinci was born in April 15, 1452 in Vinci, Italy. Leonardo's mastery in art, science and engineering have earned him a place among the most prolific geniuses of history. He was one of the most important artists of the Italian Renaissance, a period when the arts and sciences flourished. At age 17, Leonardo and his father moved to Florence, where he apprenticed to Verrocchio. His brilliance soon eclipsed that of his master. In 1472 Leonardo became a member of the painter's guild of Florence, where he had contact with other great Florentine artists including Michelangelo Buonarroti.

In 1481 Leonardo left Florence for Milan to offer his service to the local Duke. During this period he painted the Virgin of the Rocks and the Last Supper. In 1499 Leonardo left Milan, traveling through Mantua, to the court of Isabella d'Este; to Venice, where he consulted on architecture from 1495 to 1499; and in 1502 and 1503 was military engineer for Cesare Borgia. After his service to the Borgias, Leonardo returned to Florence. It was during the period between 1503 and 1506, while working primarily in Florence, that he had his greatest following and painted such classics as the "Mona Lisa."

Leonardo left Florence for Milan in 1506, although he returned in 1507-8 to fight for his inheritance from his Uncle. In 1509 he returned to Milan and devoted much of his time to

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scientific studies, and to engineering projects such as channeling the course of the Adda river. In 1512 Leonardo left Milan again, and from 1513 to 1516 was in Rome under the protection of Giuliano de Medici, the brother of Pope Leo X. Here Leonardo came into contact with Michelangelo, and another young rival, Raphael. After the death of Giuliano dei Medici, Leonardo accepted an invitation from French friends and moved to the castle of Cloux near Amboise, where he stayed with his faithful pupil Melzi until the end of his life. Leonardo died on May 2, 1519, and was buried in the cloister of San Fiorentino in Amboise.

名言 ：Iron rusts from disuse; stagnant water loses its purity and in cold weather becomes frozen; …even so does inaction sap the vigor of the mind.

Key words: versatility

商人

罗斯佩罗（1930-）

这个人一开始压根儿不知道IBM 是什么，却很快成为IBM 在美国西部销售额最高的人；这个人并不倾心于计算机本身，却在60年代初富有远见地创办了EDS ——全球最大的计算机服务公司；这个从小为了多挣一分钱而绞尽脑汁的人，却一下子成了80年代IT 业最富有的人之一；在乔布斯被赶出苹果落魄之际，是他慷慨解囊投资创建NEXT 。他还是一个人人皆知的爱国主义者，象《第一滴血》中的兰博一样，他亲自带领一个营救队去营救关押在伊朗的两名EDS 人质；这还不算，1992年，正当共和党的布什和民主党的克林顿为总统席位角逐时，他打破了美国建国以来的传统历史，如同一匹黑马，代表无党派人士参加竞选。结果他的声威节节上升，民意调查的支持率一度达到19%，几乎与布什、克林顿并驾齐驱……这个人就是罗斯·佩罗，他以自己的经历精彩地证明了这套人生哲学。

Ross Perot （1930-）

Ross Perot, born in 1930, American business executive, philanthropist, and independent candidate for the United States presidency in 1992. Henry Ross Perot was born in Texarkana, Texas. In 1953 he graduated from the United States Naval Academy. Perot did not excel scholastically at the academy. However, fellow students elected him best all-around midshipman and class president for life. Perot served in the Navy at sea from 1953 to 1957.

Upon receiving his discharge from the Navy, Perot worked in Dallas, Texas, as a computer salesman for International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). In 1962, after meeting his annual quota for computer sales in the first three weeks of January, Perot left IBM to start an electronic data processing business, Electronic Data Systems (EDS). Through the 1960s, he built his business by serving the vast data processing needs of medical insurance companies. In 1968 Perot profited enormously when EDS stock began to trade publicly. In 1984 Perot sold the company to General Motors (GM) for $2.5 billion and secured a seat on GM's board of directors. Differences with GM executives led to his departure from the board two years later. In 1988 Perot launched a new data processing service company, Perot Systems Corporation.

A self-avowed patriot, Perot received substantial media attention in 1969 when he attempted to deliver food, medicine, mail, and clothing to United States prisoners of war in Vietnam. In 1979 he organized a dramatic commando rescue of two EDS employees jailed in Iran after that

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country's revolution, further burnishing his reputation as a man of action. Perot cemented this reputation when he declared his availability for the presidency on Larry King Live, a television talk show, in 1992. At that time, Perot expressed his dissatisfaction with the performance of the Republican and Democratic parties on issues such as the federal deficit, reform of term limits for members of Congress, and campaign finance reform.

Perot accused the two major political parties of pandering to the American people and refusing to ask citizens to make difficult choices necessary to move forward on the major issues of the day. He presented his own economic plan, in a series of paid, 30-minute “infomercials” on television. The plan proposed to deal with the problem of the national budget deficit by sharply increasing gasoline taxes, increasing taxes on benefits of wealthier Social Security recipients, and limiting deductions for mortgage interest.

Key words: business executive philanthropist independent candidate

洛克菲勒（1839—1937）

约翰·洛克菲勒出生在美国东北部一个小村，家境贫寒。幼年时，曾将别人送他的一对火鸡精心喂养成群，挑好的在集市上出售。12岁时积蓄了50美元，他把钱借给邻居，收取本息。在克利夫兰商业学校毕业后，曾任一运输公司会计，三年积蓄900美元。他未参加南北战争，却在战争中捞取了1.7万美元。他沉默寡言，把全部精力倾注在金钱上。23岁时起，他靠炼油厂获得了很多财富。1870年，他把两座炼油厂和石油输出商行合并，创建俄亥俄美孚石油公司。此后不到两年的时间，他的公司以惊人的速度吞并发展。接着，为控制全国石油工业，他操纵纽约中央铁路公司和伊利公司同宾夕法尼亚公司开展铁路运费方面的竞争。结果，在8年内，美孚石油公司炼油能力从占全美4％猛增到95％。美孚公司几乎控制了美国全部工业和几条大铁路干线。1882年，它成为美国历史上第一个托拉斯。后来，洛克菲勒财团又形成由花旗银行、大通—曼哈顿银行等四家大银行和三家保险公司组成的金融核心机构，这七大企业控制全国银行资产的12％和全国保险业资产的26％，洛氏家族通过它们影响工业企业决策。洛克菲勒财团创办基金会，向教育、文化、医疗卫生和其他社会团体赠款，扩大影响和势力。洛克菲勒财团还指派亲信人物担任政府要职，如曾任国务卿的杜勒斯、腊斯克都担任过洛氏基金会董事长的职务；基辛格出任国务卿之前，曾担任纳尔逊·洛克菲勒（老洛克菲勒之孙）的外交政策私人顾问。该家族的成员也活跃于政治舞台，左右内政和外交政策，如纳尔逊·洛克菲勒就曾担任1974—1977年美国副总统。

John D.Rockefeller （1839—1937）

John Davidson Rockefeller was born in Richford, New York in 1839. He attended the Cleveland Central High School and at 16 he became a clerk in a commission house. Determined to work for himself, Rockefeller saved all the money he could and in 1850 went into business with a young Englishman, Maurice Clark. The company, Clark & Rockefeller Produce and Commission, sold farm implements, fertilizers and household goods.

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