礼貌原则

the Politeness Principle and its application to English teaching Abstract: This article, based on the Politeness Principle proposed by Leech, is to introduce a whole teaching process carried out in English class and examine the effectiveness of the pragmatic application of the Politeness Principle to English language teaching. It points out that teachers’ application of the Politeness Principle in class can motivate as well as facilitate their teaching.

Key words: the Politeness Principle; application; English language teaching

Ⅰ.Introduction

Language is a symbolic system to describe objects in the world; it is also a major tool by which we communicate who we are, what we are doing, and how we feel toward addressees and the events around us. In our everyday life, there is difference between politeness and impoliteness when expressing the same meaning. We should use polite words, which can help us build a smoother communication bridge, develop into an excellent person and avoid the contradiction and embarrassment in our daily communication. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important standard in the social life.

Polite language is different from the general language in that it can help build a friendly ligament between the addressers and the addressees. As a teacher, we should bear in mind the importance of polite language in our classroom teaching, follow the polite principle and apply the polite language to our classroom teaching. Language is used for communication. In our classroom teaching of English, it is very important for the teachers and students to communicate with each other. Language is not only the aim of teaching, but also a method of teaching. Therefore, we can say, whether teachers’ language is polite or not plays an important role in the classroom teaching. As teachers, if we communicate with students in a polite way, it is very easy for us to make a close relation with the students. Otherwise, students may feel hurt by our impolite words and thus they may not like us and the subject we teach. So, if we want to obtain an effective teaching, it is very necessary for us to pay more attention to the language we use in such a particular environment—classroom teaching. In addition, it is also very necessary for the students to learn and use language in a polite environment, which is not only a basic request of language teaching, but also a basic request of teachers’ qualities.

Ⅱ.Politeness and the Politeness Principle

In everyday conversation, there are ways to go about getting the things we want. When we are with a group of friends, we can say to them, "Go get me that plate!", or "Shut-up!" However, when we are surrounded by a group of adults at a formal function, in which our parents are attending, we must say, "Could you please pass me that plate, if you don't mind?" and "I'm sorry, I don't mean to interrupt, but I am not able to hear the speaker in the front of the room." In different social situations, we are obligated to adjust our use of words to fit the occasion. It would seem socially unacceptable if the phrases above were reversed. Then, we have to know what being “polite” means. According to Leech, “some illocutions (e.g., orders) are inherently impolite, and others (e.g., offers) are inherently polite” (1983:83). This view assumes politeness to be an abstract quality, residing in individual expressions, lexical items or

morphemes, without regard for the particular circumstances that govern their use. Being “inherently” polite implies being always polite, without regard for the contextual factors that define what is polite in a given situation. According to Brown and Levinson, politeness strategies are developed in order to save the hearers' "face." Face refers to the respect that an individual has for him or herself, and maintaining that "self-esteem" in public or in private situations. Usually you try to avoid embarrassing the other person, or making them feel uncomfortable.

We can say, politeness is best expressed as the practical application of good manners or etiquette.Politeness is a sociocultural phenomenon, roughly to be defined as showing, or appearing to show, consideration of others. Politeness can thus be seen as one of the basic social guidelines for human interaction. The goal of politeness can then be described as reflecting or realizing the social or interpersonal function of language with politeness being“a system of interpersonal relations designed to facilitate interaction by minimizing the potential for conflict and confrontation inherent in all human interchange”(Lakoff,1990:34).

Politeness phenomenon is universal almost in all languages and the Politeness Principle is one of the most influential theories concerning politeness. Mentioning the Politeness Principle, one will think of Leech’s Politeness Principle (in the following PP refers to Leech’s PP). What is more, PP as one of communicative principles, many scholars have touched upon it like Lakoff(1973),Brown and Levinson(1978) and Leech(1983) etc.. It is generally recognized that the pioneering work of Lakoff, Brown and Levinson and Leech etc. launched in the 1970s, has greatly contributed to the ensuing enthusiasm in politeness studies. This also shows that more and more people have realized the need and importance to carry out research on politeness. What is more, human beings do not and cannot possibly live in isolation; people need to interact constantly with other people and politeness is one of the important thongs they should bear in mind to ensure smooth and successful interaction.

On the other hand, advances in science and technology have gradually eliminated the distance of time and space and greatly contributed to easier and more frequent human interaction, putting the study of politeness on a high agenda. To ignore politeness studies entails running the risk of miscommunication, conflict and friction etc. to say it simply, where there is communication, there are politeness studies. As a result, politeness as a research topic of much concern has been and is enjoying much popularity with people specialized in the areas of pragmatics, sociolinguistics and intercultural communication etc.

In Leech’s PP, politeness concerns a relationship between two parties or sides whom we may call self and other, or we may say that the relationship of these two parties or sides is the concerns of the politeness. The maxims of the PP tend to be going in pairs as follows:

(ⅰ)tact maxim (in impositive and co missives)

(a) Minimize cost to other (b) Maximize benefit to other

（ⅱ)generosity maxim (in impositivesand co missives)

(a)Minimize benefit to self (b) Maximize cost to self

(ⅲ)approbation maxim (in expressive and assertive)

(a)Minimize dispraise of other (b) Maximize praise of other

(ⅳ)modesty maxim (in expressive and assertive)

(a)Minimize praise of self (b) Maximize dispraise of self

(ⅴ)agreement maxim (in assertive)

(a)Minimize disagreement between self and other (b) Maximize agreement between self and other

(ⅵ)sympathy maxim (in assertive)

(a)Minimize antipathy between self and other

(b)Maximize sympathy between self and other(Adapted from Leech, 1983:132)

The statements of these maxims have been simplified for convenience: strictly, (ⅰ)(a), for example, should be read like: ‘Minimize the expression of beliefs which express or imply cost to other’, and the other maxims should be similarly expanded. In that they recommend the expression of polite rather than impolite beliefs, all of them come under the PP. From these maxims of the PP mentioned above, we can see that the first four maxims go in pairs because they deal with bipolar scales: the cost-benefit and praise-dispraise scales. The other two maxims deal with unipolar scales: the scales of agreement and sympathy. Although there are various connecting links between the scales, each maxim is distinct in that it refers to an evaluative scale that is distinct from the scales referred to by the others. Whereas (ⅰ) and (ⅱ) respectively concern the cost of benefit if future action to other and to self, (ⅲ) and (ⅳ) respectively concern the degree to which speaker’s remarks convey some good or bad evaluation of other and of self. For example, the Approbation Maxim is exemplified in the intrinsic courtesy of congratulations, and the Modesty Maxim in that of apologies.

In the theory of PP, not all of the maxims or we may say, sub-maxims are equally important. Of the twinned maxims (ⅰ) to (ⅳ), (ⅰ) appears to be more powerful constraint on conversational behavior than (ⅱ), and (ⅲ) than (ⅳ). That is to say, "Tact" involves a more powerful constraint on conversational behavior than does "Generosity", and "Approbation" is more important than” Modesty". Generally speaking, this reflects a more general law that politeness is sometimes focused more strongly on “other” than on “self”. We should note also that speakers may adhere to more than one maxim of politeness at the same time. Often one maxim is on the forefront of the utterance, with a second maxim being invoked by implication. For instance, You're the expert when used to voice a request for action invokes first of all the Approbation-maxim, but the maxim of Modesty is simultaneously attended to by implication (as the speaker implicitly denies his/her ability to carry out the task at hand). On the other hand, in classroom teaching we may also noticed that sometimes politeness is focused on more on self because polite words used in classroom teaching are to minimize impolite expressions and maximize polite expressions of what the teachers say. Moreover, even within each maxim, sub-maxim (b) seems to less important than sub-maxim (a), and this again illustrates the more general law that negative politeness (avoid of discord) is a more weighty consideration than positive politeness (seeking discord). One further difference in importance should also be noted, although it is not reflected in the form of maxims: politeness towards an

addressee is generally more important than politeness towards a third party.

Social communication is generally oriented towards maintaining face and being polite, and one of the ground rules on social communication is a tacit agreement between the different parties that everyone should operate with the theory of face and the PP in mind. Every time when people open their mouths, they have to consider whether they say is likely to maintain the face of others and shows that they are polite, because it is conventional to appear to be p olite, whatever one’s true feelings. And keeping to the PP is especially an important means to avoid any potential face affront to the students and to show politeness to the students.

Ⅲ.The application of the Politeness Principle to English teaching

In order to more effectively organize the class, teachers should have enough emphasis on the psyche of students and the politeness principle may play an important part in the effectiveness of class. Thus, the parts involved in the communication can communicate with each other successfully and at the same time understand and treat each other in a frank way. If we apply the PP to the classroom teaching of English, it can alleviate the anxiety of learning English and the sense of frustration because of failure in learning English, and at the same time it can contribute to relaxing the students’ nervousness in learning English, lessening the contradiction between teachers and students and impr oving the students’ confidence in learning English.

he process of English teaching mainly refers to the process of classroom teaching of English, including, making known of the classroom instructions and tabling the learning proposal. The success of classroom teaching mainly depends on the successful cooperation between teachers and students. In the process, teachers are guiders who lead the students into English learning. How can we successfully guide the students into the process? I think it mainly depends on the application of teaching skills, especially the application of the Politeness Principle.

ⅰthe explanation of the contents

At the beginning of a class, teachers and students often greet each other: “Good morning/afternoon/evening!”Then we come to the formal classroom teaching. Before the introduction of the intraday contents, we often review the contents of last class: “we have learned …or (yesterday) we explained …”.In fact, it is the students who learned in last class and it is the teachers who e xplained in last class. Why don’t we say “you have learned … or I explained …”?The transform of pronouns shows that teachers show their respect to the students and the students may feel that teachers and students both take part in the classroom teaching in stead of one-side activities. When we come to the introduction of the new contents, we often say: “today we are going to learn…”. In this sentence, there is also a transform of pronouns. It is the students who learn the new contents. The use of “we” instead of “you” makes a closer relation between teachers and students and implies the cooperation between them. Thus, we can create a comfortable and happy teaching environment which is beneficial to the development of the teaching activities.

In the process of teaching, in order to learn about whether the students are clear about what we have taught, we often ask the students: “can you understand/follow/catch me?” We may not think whether it is appropriate because we have been accustomed to

such sentence. In fact,if we probe it from the view of politeness principle, it violates the tact maxim because it hurts the negative face of the addressees. I think it is better to say “have I made the sense?”.

ⅱ. Making known of the classroom instruction

In the process of teaching, in order to examine or consolidate students’learning results, we will make known of some teaching instructions. Teaching instructions refer to some requests such as putting questions to the students, carrying out the activities and assigning the homework, etc. Teachers should design and create a respectful, productive positive classroom atmosphere. We had better give the instructions in a relaxing voice, thus making the students feel it is not compelling and be willing to tak e part in it. Let’s take making a presentation as an example. First we will give the preparation instruction: “1) I’d like you to do a presentation. 2) Ten minutes is for preparation”. This instruction is better than “3) I want you to do a presentation. 4) I give you ten minutes to prepare”. In the first sentence, we give the instruction in a polite way while in the second one conceal the instructor and the addressees, thus showing that it is not compelling and shows respect to the students. But in sentence 3) and 4), it is obvious that the teachers are in a higher position and give the instruction in a strong voice, thus making the addressees feel that they have to take part in the activities. Therefore, it violates the generosity maxim. When many students are well-prepared, teachers had better ask the students: “Who’d like to be the first one to…? Or who would be the volunteers…?”. Such requests may relax the students’ nervousness and it conforms to the generosity maxim.

ⅲ. Tabling the learning proposal

The learning proposal includes giving the students some suggestions and the evaluation to their performance in learning English.

Let’s also take making presentation as an example. When the students are preparing for it, teachers should walk around the students to solve their problems but don’t give suggestions forwardly: “you should act this way or you’d better…”. Instead, if the students ask for help, we may say: “if I were you, I would do this way… or How about/what do you think of doing this way?”. I n such suggestions, the students can decide whether they adopt teachers’ suggestions or not by themselves. It conforms to the tact maxim because it reduces the degree of the students’ face hurt.

Teachers’evaluation to students’performance includes positive and negative evaluation. In the process of teaching, we’d better adopt more positive evaluations and less negative evaluations. Whether the students’performance is good or not, at first teachers should give positive evaluation and encouragements, then point out the faults. This evaluation conforms to the approbation maxim, which can inspire the students’ interest and arouse their initiative in learning English.

It is inescapable to use the negative evaluation in the process of teaching. Correcting s tudents’ mistakes may hurt their passive face, so how can teachers reduce the degree of students’ face hurt to the lowest? I think it is very important for teachers to adopt the Politeness Principle in an appropriate way to correct students’ mistakes. Teac hers should bear in mind that we shouldn’t sneer at the students and treat the students in a fair way, especially to the low-achieved students. Such words as “you are such a dull

boy; how stupidyou are! Why are you always making such mistakes? etc.” should be avoided because it may hurt the students seriously and it greatly violates the approbation maxim and the sympathy maxim. Instead, we can say “your answer is not completely right; I hope next time you can do a better job; etc.”.

At last, we can come to the conclusion: it is very effective to apply the Politeness Principle to the English classroom teaching. Of course, every thing has two sides. The Politeness Principle also has its own shortcomings and it cannot explain the entire phenomenon in English classroom teaching. Therefore, we should apply the teaching skills in a comprehensive way to obtain a better teaching effect. Reference:

[1] Brown, P & S. Levinson. (1979). Universals in Language Use: Politeness Phenomena. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[2] Jacob L.Mey.(2001). Pragmatics: An Introduction. Beijing:Foreign language Teaching and Research Press.

[3] Juliane House. (2001). Politeness and Translation. In Leo Hichey(Ed.). The Pragmatics of Translation. (p.54). Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages and Education Press.

[4] Kenneth R.Rose, Gabriele Kasper.(2006). Pragmatics in Language Teaching. 北京：世界图书出版公司.

[5] Lakoff, R. (1973).Logic of Politeness: Or Minding Your P’s and Q’s. Papers From the Ninth Regional Meeting.Chicago Linguistics Society.

[6] Lakoff,R.T.(1990) Talking Power. New York: Basic Books

[7] Leech, G. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. London:Longman.

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小学文明礼仪活动方案(精)

“文明礼仪教育”活动月方案 一、活动意义: 为切实提高学生的文明礼仪水平,培养学生高尚的道德情操,理解、宽容、谦让、诚实的待人态度和庄重大方、热情友好、谈吐文明、讲究文明的行为举止,构建和谐校园,我校把培养学生“文明行为习惯”作为学生德育工作的重要内容,通过学生“在校学习礼仪、走向社会实践礼仪、带动百万家庭传播礼仪”,来形成人人讲文明、重礼仪的良好氛围,从而全面提高德育教育工作水平,形成德育工作特色。 二、活动目标: 1.通过开展内容丰富、形式多样的主题教育活动,培养学生良好道德品质和文明行为习惯,使学生具备文明生活的基本素养。 2.通过文明礼仪测评活动,提高学生的文明修养,让校园洋溢文明之风。 三、组织机构: 参加成员:四年级三班全体学生 四、活动安排: 1.宣传学习阶段 A、组织学生学习《小学文明礼仪活动方案》。 B、利用晨会、国旗下讲话、校园广播站、学校网站、校宣传橱窗,宣传文明礼仪知识,提高学生礼仪素养。 C、班级内设立固定的文明礼仪宣传阵地。 2.行动实施阶段各班结合学校方案,开展有关活动。 (1利用学生对学生进行礼仪培训。

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浅析商务英语信函中的礼貌原则分析

本科生毕业设计（论文）封面 （ 2017 届） 论文（设计）题目 作者 学院、专业 班级 指导教师（职称） 论文字数 论文完成时间 大学教务处制

英语原创毕业论文参考选题 一、论文说明 本写作团队致力于英语毕业论文写作与辅导服务，精通前沿理论研究、仿真编程、数据图表制作，专业英语本科论文3000起，具体可以找扣扣805990 0749，下列所写题目均可写作。部分题目已经写好原创。 二、原创论文参考题目 1、(英语毕业论文)浅析《恋爱中的女人》中劳伦斯的爱情观 2、(英语毕业论文)从礼貌原则分析发盘的语言技巧 3、(英语毕业论文)浅析《愤怒的葡萄》中主要人物的性格特征（开题报告+论文+文献综述） 4、(英语毕业论文)A Study of Narrative Strategies in Beloved 5、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯?思特里克兰德的追寻自我 6、(英语毕业论文)从奥运菜单看中式菜肴英译名规范化程度（开题报告+论文） 7、(英语毕业论文)中西饮食文化中的差异（开题报告+论文） 8、(英语毕业论文)从幽默取材看中英传统价值差异(开题报告+论文) 9、(英语毕业论文)美国情景喜剧《老友记》中幽默的翻译研究（开题报告+论文） 10、(英语毕业论文)加工层次理论指导下的商务英语词汇学习 11、(英语毕业论文)Yellow Peril–the Image of Fu Manchu in the West 12、(英语毕业论文)《月亮与六便士》中查尔斯?思特里克兰德的追寻自我 13、(英语毕业论文)互文性理论指导下的公示语汉英翻译 14、(英语毕业论文)文化负迁移对翻译的影响（开题报告+论文） 15、(英语毕业论文)奇幻作品中所反映的欧洲民族神话—以《指环王》为例（开题报告+论文+文献综述） 16、(英语毕业论文)商务谈判中的模糊语的使用 17、(英语毕业论文)论艾略特《荒原》中的宗教信仰与价值观(开题报告+论文+文献综述) 18、(英语毕业论文)分析《贵妇画像》中伊莎贝尔的个性特点（开题报告+论文+文献综述） 19、(英语毕业论文)从高校课桌文化透视当代大学生的内心压力（开题报告+论文+文献综述） 20、(英语毕业论文)公示语的功能、语言特点及翻译 21、(英语毕业论文)《呼啸山庄》中的爱与复仇(开题报告+论文) 22、(英语毕业论文)从关联理论解读《家庭战争》的幽默（开题报告+论文+文献综述+外文翻译） 23、(英语毕业论文)中西方家庭教育对比研究——从《傅雷家书》和《致儿家书》的对比(开题报告+论文) 24、(英语毕业论文)从《阿甘正传》看个人主义对美国文化的影响 25、(英语毕业论文)从归化和异化的角度对《小妇人》的两个中文译本的比较研究（开题报告+论文+文献综述） 26、(英语毕业论文)语言经济学视角下的商务英语信函写作（开题报告+论文+文献综述）

文明礼仪的标题

夫君子之行，静以修身，俭以养德，非淡泊无以明志，非宁静无以致远。诸葛亮讲话气势汹汹，未必就是言之有理。萨迪 不会宽容人的人，是不配受到别人的宽容的。——贝尔奈 谦虚使人进步，骄傲使人落后。我们应当永远记住这个真理。——毛泽东 自觉心是进步之母，自贱心是堕落之源，故自觉心不可无，自贱心不可有。——邹韬奋好脾气是一个人在社交中所能穿着的最佳服饰。——都德 无论你怎样地表示愤怒，都不要做出任何无法挽回的事来。——培根 峣峣者缺，皎皎者易污。《阳春》之曲，和者必寡，盛名之下，其实难副。——范晔有谦和、愉快、诚恳的态度，而同时又加上忍耐精神的人，是非常幸运的。——塞涅卡谦固美名，过谦者，宜防其诈。——朱熹 当我们是大为谦卑的时候，便是我们最近于伟大的时候。——泰戈尔 卑己而尊人是不好的，尊己而卑人也是不好的。——徐特立 九牛一毫莫自夸，骄傲自满必翻车。历览古今多少事，成由谦逊败由奢。——陈毅一知半解的人，多不谦虚；见多识广有本领的人，一定谦虚。——谢觉哉 宋代的理学大师周敦颐在《通书》里的一句话很值得拿来看看：“礼，理也。乐，和也。阴阳理而后和。君君臣臣，父父子子，兄兄弟弟，夫夫妇妇，万物各得其理，然后和。” 文明礼貌 学习争先虽重要，文明礼貌也要好。学校规定都遵守，见到老师有礼貌。同学之间相友爱，友谊之手牵的牢。爱护公物放心上，树立新风我做到。 礼仪的原则 礼仪、礼节、礼貌内容丰富多样，但它有自身的规律性，其基本的礼仪原则：一是敬人的原则；二是自律的原则，就是在交往过程中要克己、慎重、积极主动、自觉自愿、礼貌待人、表里如一，自我对照，自我反省，自我要求，自我检点，自我约束，不能妄自尊大，口是心非；三是适度的原则，适度得体，掌握分寸；四是真诚的原则，诚心诚意，以诚待人，不逢场作戏，言行不一。 礼仪的用语 用语：敬语，表示尊敬和礼貌的词语。如日常使用的“请”、“谢谢”、“对不起”，第二人称中的“您”字等。初次见面为“久仰”；很久不见为“久违”；请人批评为“指教’；麻烦别人称“打扰”；求给方便为“借光”；托人办事为“拜托”等等。要努力养成使用敬语的习惯。现在，我国提倡的礼貌用语是十个字：“您好”、“请”、“谢谢”、“对不起”、“再见”。这十个字体现了说话文明的基本的语言形式。 图书馆等公共产所礼仪 图书馆、阅览室：图书馆、阅览室是公共的学习场所。 ①要注意整洁，遵守规则。不能穿汗衫和拖拉鞋入内，不要为别人预占位置，查阅目录卡片时，不可把卡片翻乱或撕坏，或用笔在卡片上涂抹划线。 ②要保持安静和卫生。走动时脚步要轻，不要高声谈话，不要吃食物。 ③对图书馆、阅览室的图书桌椅板凳等等属于公共财产，也应该注意爱护，不要破坏。 礼仪的题目文明，是每个人必须具备的素质讲文明、创和谐 文明是城市之魂，美德是立身之本文明礼仪伴我行 加强道德建设，共建美好家园共建文明家园，同创美好未来 文明礼仪手抄报：教学礼仪规范 (一)组织教学上课时，学生起立向老师致敬，起立致意是为了表示对主讲人也就是教师的尊敬。师生互相问好，同时老师向同学点头致意，并对学生说：“请坐”。这些都是课堂的问候方式，使师生之间形成良好的交流与互动。 (二)课堂提问在教学过程中，老师在提问时，使用礼貌用语，如：“某同学，请你来回答”。在学生回答的过程中，用眼睛看着对话者脸上的三角部分，这个三角以双眼为底线，上顶角到前额。如果你看着对方的这个部位，会显得很严肃认真，别人会感到你有诚意。在学生

礼貌原则

人们的言语交际受到一定条件的制约，在不同的谈话阶段谈话者都围绕着一个相同的目的，相互配合、共同信守着一定的基本原则。美国语言学家格莱斯提出了合作原则的概念，成为了语用学的核心内容，并作为指导言语交际的重要原则，得到普遍认同。格莱斯将合作原则分解为四项准则：数量、质量、关联、方式准则。 1.量的准则：所说的话应该包含交谈目的所需要的信息，所说的话不应包含超出需要的信息。 2.质的准则：不要说自知是虚假的话；不要说缺乏足够证据的话。 3.关联准则：话语的内容要切题。 4.方式准则：话语要清楚明白。避免晦涩，避免歧义，简练有条理。 合作原则是保证交际顺利进行的重要因素，但人们在交谈过程中并不总是遵守合作原则。英国语言学家利奇认为，有一部分违背合作原则的行为是出于礼貌的原因，是为了不伤害交际对象的面子。对此，利奇于1983年在其《语用学原则》中提出“礼貌原则”的概念。利奇认为“礼貌原则不能被视为添加到合作原则上去的另一个原则，而是为了援救合作原则解决一系列麻烦的一种必要补充。”礼貌原则成为和合作原则并存互补的交际原则，用来规范交际主体的言语行为。而利奇的合作原则包括六项准则：（1）策略准则（用于指令和承诺） （a）使他人受损最小（b）使他人受惠最大 （2）宽宏准则（用于指令和承诺） （a）使自身受惠最小 (b)使自身受损最大 （3）赞扬准则（用于表情和表述） （a）尽力缩小最他人的贬损 (b)尽力夸大对他人的赞扬 （4）谦虚准则（用于表情和表述） （a）尽力缩小对自身的赞扬 (b)尽力夸大对自身的贬损 （5）赞同准则（用于表述） （a）尽力缩小自身和他人之间的分歧 (b)尽力夸大自身和他人之间的一致（6）同情准则（用于表述） （a）尽力缩小自身对他人的厌恶 (b)尽力夸大自身对他人的同情 而这六项准则按照内容和所规范的言语行为，归纳为三项准则： 1.少损人利己的准则。要求交际主体在发出指令或做出承诺的时候，不因为自己的利益而过多地损害别人。 2.少贬人扬己的准则。要求说话人在说明情况和表明态度的时候，不要贬低对方，也不要炫耀自己。 3.多赞同他人的准则。要求说话人在交谈中尽可能表现自己与对方的接近之处，在观点上尽量显示共同点，在感情上尽量表示同情和理解。

用合作原则和礼貌原则分析《士兵突击》选段'

用合作原则和礼貌原则分析《士兵突击》选段 摘要：本文使用语用学上的合作原则和礼貌原则，对《士兵突击》中的选段进行简要的语用分析，揭示该作品语言中的语用特点在烘托人物性格方面的作用。 关键词：合作原则；礼貌原则；士兵突击 一. 合作原则和礼貌原则 合作原则最初是由Grice提出的。Grice认为人们在交际过程中必须要遵循一般的原则——合作原则，即根据目前交际的目的或方向，使谈话始终符合交际的需要（何自然，陈新仁，2004：32）。在合作原则之下，Grcie 细分出了体现合作交际的四条准则，共九条次则,即：（1）质的准则：努力使你说的话真实。A. 不要说你认为是假的话。B不要说你认为缺少足够证据的话。（2）量的准则：A话语应包含有满足交际所需的信息。B话语不应包含超过交际所需的信息。（3）关系准则：要有关联。（4）方式准则：说话要清楚明白。A避免晦涩B避免歧义C要简练D要有条理。 根据Grice的理论，这四条准则是合作原则的基本准则。然而，在日常交际中，很多时候说话人并不完全遵循合作原则的这四条基本的准则，却照样可以顺利地完成交际，建立和谐的人际关系。这是因为人们在违反合作原则时为了达到礼貌的目的遵循了另一种原则，使自己的话语带有一种特殊的含义，实现特殊的交际目的。这就是 Leech 在后来的研究中从修辞学和语体学的角度提出的礼貌原则。 根据Leech 的理论，礼貌原则是对合作原则的补充。礼貌是人类文明的标志，是人类社会活动的一条重要准则。作为一种社会活动，语言活动也同样受到这条准绳的约束。因此礼貌原则是增加和维护交际双方和睦关系的一种原则。Leech提出了制约人们言语交际的六

(完整版)合作原则与礼貌原则之间的关系

试论会话中合作原则与礼貌原则之间的关系 一．会话中的合作原则 会话含义理论是理解自然语言的一种学识，它是由格莱斯于1967年在哈佛大学的讲座中提出。这个理论提出，谈话的参与者都必须有把谈话进行下去的愿望。所谓成功的言语交际需要会话双方互相合作互相配合,要求每一个交谈参与者在整个交谈过程中，所说的话符合这一次交谈的目标或方向。正是交谈者的这种配合，使得他们能够持续地进行有意义的语言交际。交谈者在交际中所遵循的那些原则和准则就是所谓的“合作原则”，即Cooperative Principle,简称CP。 合作原则又可以具体体现为四条准则 1)质量准则( The Maxim of Quality): A.不要说自已认为是不真实的话。 B.不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。 2)量的准则( The Maxim of Quantity): A.使自己所说的话达到(交谈的现实目的)所要求的详尽程度。 B.不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。 3)关联准则( The Maxim of Relation): 说话要贴切。 4)方式准则(The Maxim of Manner) 表达要清楚 A.避免晦涩的词语 B.避免歧义

C.说话要简要(避免赘述) D.说话要有条理 但是，后来人们发现，在实际交往中，人们不可能时时刻刻都遵循这四条准则，甚至有时是故意违反这些准则。那么我们就可以从人们故意违反这些准则中来，探究隐含在语言之下的那些言外之意，有时会达到幽默的效果，有时却会引起听者的误解，以至于有时说话者不得不额外的注以解释。例如在（1）对话中： 女孩：我漂亮吗？ 男孩：你带眼镜的时候很漂亮。 在这个对话中女孩所期待的回答是:是的，你很漂亮。这样也遵守了合作原则。但偏偏男孩没这样回答，也就是说他违反了合作原则，所以令女孩产生了误解，她完全有理由这样想：“那就是说我不带眼镜的时候很丑了”。而男孩为了不让女孩误解，赶紧接着说“你不带眼镜的时候更漂亮。”以此来消除前句话有可能带来的负面的效果。 例（2）He is a machine. (3) Tom has wooden ears. 上面这两句话都违背了质量准则里的第一条，因为人不可能是机器，人的耳朵也不可能是木制的。但是我们却可以从中推导出特殊的会话含义。比方说，说他是个机器，可能是想描述“他工作努力”，“他只知道干活”，“他不理解女孩的心”等，视具体情景而定。而（3）则可能说他对音乐，或其他的能用耳朵来听的东西没有鉴赏能力等等。 （4）A: Where does John live?

礼貌原则

Leech (1983) formulates ‘Politeness Principle’, or PP for short, trying to remedy Grice’s (1975) Cooperative Principle (CP) which is presumed to be unable to interpret why, for instance, people are prone to use indirect ways of saying things. To Leech, it is politeness that motivates it. Social acts like competitives (ordering, asking, begging, etc.) demand politeness far more than other kinds like convivials and collaboratives, because the former makes a threat to the audience’s face, or negative face (in Brown and Levinson’s (1978/1987) terms). V arious politeness strategies, thus, are employed to mitigate the face-threatening power. According to Leech, the greater the cost an act is (be it verbal or non-verbal) to the audience, the more polite the speaker ought to try to make the utterance. 1) is a request, and it is (made) polite by (means of) the smallness of the cost to the other person, and the politeness particle please. 2) is an order, impolite in nature. So is 3), ruder and more dangerous for it is robbery. 1) Give me ten cents, please. 2) Put up your hand! 3) Give me all your money and get out of the house. If the act is benefit (beneficial) to the hearer, the speaker does not have to sound polite, or extremely so, for the benefit speaks for itself. 4-5) are polite requests, so please as a token of politeness is not necessary, least so with 6) which is a huge if not impossible benefit. 4) Y ou can take this newspaper. 5) Take this bike. 6) Drive my car away as you please. The PP of Leech has six maxims (below is adapted from Leech: P. 132): (1) Tact Maxim: Minimize cost to hearer; maximize benefit to hearer. (2) Generosity Maxim: Minimize benefit to speaker; maximize cost to speaker. (3) Approbation Maxim: Minimize dispraise of hearer; maximize praise of hearer. (4) Modesty Maxim: Minimize praise of speaker; maximize dispraise of speaker. (5) Agreement Maxim: Minimize disagreement between speaker and hearer; maximize agreement between speaker and hearer. (6) Sympathy Maxim: Minimize antipathy between speaker and hearer; maximize sympathy between speaker and hearer. We do not have to exemplify all the maxims, for most of them are self-evident, and we can easily detect that these maxims are not equally true with all cultures. Between the east and the west there may be found some noticeable differences, but in spite of that, Leech doubts if there is any ‘divide’. (Leech 2005) According to him, the PP as a principle is universal across cultures. Differences lie only in the social parameters of politeness like age, sex, rank of imposition represented by the saying, social distance between the two people or sides, relative power of one person over the other, and so on. When Americans and Chinese receive the same praise, for instance, the former like to thank or appreciate the praiser, while the latter try all means to minimize their own praise-worthy merit. But this does not mean that Americans disobey the Modesty Maxim. Thanking in this case implies modesty by thanking the praiser or other people (like the good director or teacher of the praised), and over-dispraising self is a typical (extreme) modesty model in the eastern culture. So the skepticism about the universality of PP all over the globe, which seemed to be gaining ground in the two or three decades after the appearance of Leech (1983), does not really hold under scrutiny. 作为社会的人、社交的人、合作的人——作为人，我们需要礼貌。

中外礼貌原则对比

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不礼貌原则综述 不礼貌现象，和礼貌现象一样，也是我们沟通的一种非常重要的语用现象。尽管与礼貌现象相比，之前的研究忽略了不礼貌现象。在某种程度上，无论在国外还是国内仍然有不少相关的研究发现，并且当今关于不礼貌现象的研究越来越受到重视。本文是一篇关于不礼貌现象研究的文献综述，作者旨在从以下几部分展示一个关于不礼貌现象研究清晰的轮廓：不礼貌的定义，不礼貌策略及其回应策略，国内外不礼貌研究的领域。同时，从该文献综述中可以看出，目前国内外对该话题的研究已取得不少成果，但仍有进一步研究的空间。 不礼貌是日常言语交际中普遍存在的现象，被认为是交际策略之一。像礼貌原则一样，不礼貌原则也在我们的生活中扮演着重要的角色。由于不礼貌原则的重要性，本文将对国内外不礼貌原则的研究进行回顾并提出进一步的发展空间。 1不礼貌的定义 对“不礼貌”定义并不容易，研究者之间也没有统一的定义。这是因为不礼貌本身与许多因素密切相关，如社会基本准则、社会阶层、社会权力、不同的文化背景等。Watts（2003：9）指出，“...不礼貌是过去、目前乃至将来都有争议的术语。”Culpeper（1996）结合了Goffman（1967）和Brown & Levinson（1987）的观点，试图将“礼貌”的反面“不礼貌”定义为“使用旨在产生相反效果的策略，即社会中断的策略”。随后，Culpeper（2003）将不礼貌定义为“一种旨在攻击面子，从而导致社会冲突和不和谐的交际策略”。此后学者对不礼貌提出了不同的定义。 Mills（2005）提出，在一些谈话中，不礼貌行为是违反社会行为规范的。Bousfield（2008）提出，“不礼貌是礼貌的对立面，而不是试图减轻面子威胁行为，不礼貌是一种故意进行的口头威胁行为。” 在中国，关于不礼貌的研究尚且不多。主要有以下学者试图定义“不礼貌”。杨子和于国栋（2007）把言语不礼貌的话语定义为直接或间接损害了他人面子的话语，在交际中会引起受话人以及第三者尴尬、不愉快等。李元胜（2006）把不礼貌解释为在一定条件下违背了语言规范下的话语，从而产生正面和负面的交际价值”。丁崇明（2001）以反复的形式分析了不礼貌的话语。他指出，重申不同于重复，有其自身的特点。重申并不总是带来不礼貌的语用效果，因为它们与提问者的心理期望和社会因素密切相关。 从以上的研究者们的定义来看，近二十年来，中外学者对“不礼貌”的研究越来越重视。 2不礼貌策略 随着对不礼貌研究的深入，学者们提出了与布朗和莱文森的礼貌策略相平行

中西方礼貌原则及其差异分析

1. Introduction Politeness as a social phenomenon can be observed in all languages and cultures, and it has long been made an important object of study in linguistics. The really serious study of politeness in the Western linguistic circles can be traced back to the German Romantic Movement in the early 1920s. In recent years, along with the rapid movement towards pragmatics, politeness has become the central theme. The two most influential and successful theories are Brown and Levinson?s Face Theory and Le ech?s Politeness Principle. In China, however, the real study of politeness only began in the 1980s when pragmatics was introduced into China. The most worth-mentioning figure in this area is Gu Yueguo. He puts forward his own set of politeness maxims in his “Politeness Phenomena in Modem Chinese” (1990). Later, based on traditional Chinese cultural values, Gu has formulated a different set of politeness maxims, which he thinks are more suitable to the Chinese environment. As a common social phenomenon, politeness is not only a universally highly valued virtue, but also a widely employed strategy to realize tactful and effective communications. Despite its universality of politeness, the ways to realize politeness and the standards of judgment differ in different cultures. Being unaware of such differences would probably lead to trouble or failure in cross-cultural communication. Therefore, it is necessary and important to study different concepts and manifestations of politeness in different cultures, so as to reduce the possibility of misunderstanding between the two sides and achieve a satisfactory result. 2. Concept of Politeness Politeness is a universal phenomenon in human society, but it is not existent until the process of socialization and civiliz ation. The English term “polite” derives from late Medieval Latin “Politus” meaning “smoothed”, “accomplished”. Therefore“polite” was usually associated with concepts such as “polished”, “refined”. However different linguists and scholars give their different interpretations of politeness. Leech (1983: 82) sees politeness as a regulative factor in interaction in order to maintain “the social equilibrium and the friendly relation”. Brown and Levinson view politeness as a redressive action taken to counter-balance the disruptive effect of face-threatening acts. Yule (2000: 106) maintains that politeness is “a system of interpersonal relations designed to facilitate interaction by minimizing the potential for conflict and confrontation inherent in all human in terchange”. For Kochman, politeness has a protective mission exercised in putting things in such a