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The Evolution of the Culture of Enterprise
Ervin Laszlo
At the top echelons of contemporary business, managers are becoming concerned with the unsustainability of the way companies now operate. A transformation of basic business strategies appears more and more indicated. For such transformation to be effective, the culture of the enterprise--the goals it pursues and the vision of these goals entertained by managers and collaborators--needs to change. Consequently there is a growing questioning of the viability of the typical culture of today's enterprise, and a search for more functional and timely concepts for creating anew and more timely cultural pattern.
The leading edge of the globally operating world of business is becoming keenly concerned with changes in today's social, economic, and ecologic environment. At the top echelons of management an intense search is under way for up-to-date modes of thinking and acting. It comes to the fore in the emphasis managers place on corporate strategy, corporate identity, corporate philosophy, even corporate ethics. An organizational revolution is underway, as managers seek to communicate their vision with their collaborators. The importance of communication among all branches and levels of the enterprise is becoming recognized. It is also recognized that the company can only function when people under-stand what goals management pursues, and what their own role is in the achievement of the goals.
Enterprise culture
The ongoing transformation of the enterprise culture is a positive factor in our changing and unpredictable world. It means that companies are becoming more sensitive to the changes that obtain in their environment, and more ready to respond to them. The new emphasis on management and company ethics also suggests that businesses are willing to assume the responsibility that goes with their larger role in society. Global enterprises wield unprecedented power and influence, and the transformation of their culture will be a critical factor in deciding the evolution of our interdependent socio-economic and ecologic systems–and therewith our individual and collect future.
The transformation of the enterprise culture is timely: the company culture dominant for most of this century became obsolete. It focused on the workings of the enterprise without much regard for its social and ecologic environment。 it operated on the premise that the business of business is business--if it comes up with good products or services, it fulfills all its obligations vis-a-vis society and nature. The self-centered methods of the traditional management philosophy no longer produce acceptable results--they are like concentrating all one's skills on flying an airplane and paying scant attention to the airspace in which one is flying. The captains of contemporary business cannot be solely concerned with the internal functioning of their aircraft: they must also set a course in reference to climatic conditions, current position and projected destination, and the traffic on the network of routes criss-crossing the globe. That traffic is diversified and complex. It includes, in addition to customers, suppliers, distributors, R&D partners, technology subcontractors, and governmental departments and ministries, and numerous other cooperative and competitive aircraft, together with the social, ecologic, and even cultural milieu of the various bases of operation.
Global companies no longer resemble a giant mechanism, controlled by those on top. This is new in the history of modern business. For most of the 20th century, top management could command the company structures without being influenced by, or even much concerned with, its lower echelons. Motivation for task-fulfillment was created by material incentives bolstered by threats。 individual creativity and initiative were dismissed as unnecessary nuisance. Power was concentrated, together with responsibility and overview。 middle management had access only to the information that was immediately relevant to its tasks. Following the recipes prescribed in Frederick Taylor's "scientific management", the distribution of tasks was established at headquarters and the company's functions were divided into individual work components. Planning was based on a belief in control and predictability, effects were traced to causes, and causes were quantitatively analyzed. Company operations based on cause-effect chains were given value independent of time and place: as in a machine, it was held that the same input would always produce the same output. This was the philosophy of the leading companies of the 20th century。 the model for success at General Motors and Standard Oil, and the rest of the Fortune 500 group.
The economic growth-environment of the post-war period did not provide grounds to modify, or even question, this philosophy. Almost anything an enterprising manager would try had a knack of succeeding。he could even engage in personal bravado. Technological progress seemed assured, and expanding markets seemed to distribute the benefits of growth. The post-war economy welcomed all entrepreneurs。 they could grow as the economy did. Long-term costs, if any, were hidden in the long term. In that regard businessmen were fond of quoting Keynes: in the long term we shall all be dead. If things get better and better, why bother to look further than one's nose? There was no need to worry whether or not there would be progress, it was enough to guess what shape it would take, and how the company could benefit from it.
In the 1970s and '80s the situation had changed. The economic growth curve flattened out and optimistic extrapolations failed to come true. Social alienation and anomie rose, and technology produced unexpected side-effects: scares and catastrophes at Three Mile Island, Bhopal, and Chernobyl, the ozone hole over the Antarctic, recurrent instances of acid rain and oil spill, and worsening environmental pollution in cities and on land. Belief in progress was shaken. Intellectuals and youth groups found it necessary, and some segments of society fashionable, to espouse the view that technological advance is dangerous and should be halted. Environmental effects and social value-change began to enter as factors in the equations of corporate success, and leading managers, together with consultants and management theorists, began to reexamine their operative assumptions.
By the late 1980s further changes occurred in the operating environment. Environmental concerns moved from the fringes of society into the marketplace。 people proved amenable to paying higher prices for products they deemed environmentally friendly。 and they were known to boycott companies that remained environmentally polluting or unresponsive. New information and communication technologies came on line, markets became integrated and internationalized, product cycles became shorter and product lines diversified, and clients and consumers demanded shorter delivery times and higher quality. Competition moved into the global arena. Under these circumstances classically run hierarchical enterprises proved unable to cope. The centralization of information and its slow one-way penetration to lower echelons produced fatal mistakes-and then terminal rigidity. The companies that survived did so by transforming
themselves into team-oriented multi-level decision-making and implementation structures, often in the nick of time.
In the late 1990s the diffusion of information and the growth in the intensity and number of interfaces between people, departments, and divisions have radically changed the company's operative structures. Not only information, also people emerged as the key resource of the enterprise。 teamwork proved to be the best way this resource could be tapped. The boundary between the company and its economic, social, and ecologic environment turned fuzzy. Within the business sphere fusions, alliances, and partnerships became commonplace. In many cases the core activities of the enterprise came to be sub-contracted, and work relations with other firms became as operative as company-based organizational structures. Reliance on distributors and suppliers, and linkage to local communities and ecologies turned into standard parameters of corporate functioning.
Under these circumstances, there is a dire need for new and adapted management concepts. There is no dearth of advice. Theorists speak of activity bundling and the company' capacity to sustainably capture the highest portion of the total industry value-added chain's profit margin。strategy specialists emphasize the need for management to focus on dynamic competitive positioning and customer-driven processes。technology consultants stress the importance of anticipatory R&D in both products and processes。 and organizational experts insist on the need for learning within net-worked teams operating beyond established company structures. Leading managers realize that their vision of the company's functioning within its global environment, and its adaptability to changes and trends in that environment, is at least equal in importance to their ability to formulate strategy and carry out operations.
Management guru Tom Peters called intellectual capital a company's greatest resource, and consultants Gary Hamel and C.K.Prahalad named future vision its greatest competitive advantage, more valuable than a large bank account or a lean organization. Managers who possess intellectual capital and future vision have a sense of purpose, avoid wasting time on useless experiments and dead-ends, and elicit deep commitment from their collaborators. In today's world effective leadership calls for a sound knowledge not only of current company operations and resources, but of its ability to reach strategic, financial, and organizational objectives in the years ahead. This requires considerable acumen. Because the future, as Charles
Handy pointed out, could be most anything, but is not likely to be a continuation of the past.
Though the enterprise needs a new and different culture, that culture must be efficient: it must enable executives to cope with ever less predictable economic conditions。offer sufficient flexibility to use new technologies as they come on line。 develop adaptability for the company to enter new fields of activity and leave old ones as the opportunities present themselves。 and keep track of the growing interdependence of the company with its partners and competitors and its economic and financial environment. But the new culture must also be ethical. It must recognize the impacts of the enterprise on society and on nature, and even on the conditions that we bequeath on future generations. And it must be ready to accept responsibility for these impacts.
Accepting responsibility in the sphere of society and nature is not only good common sense, it is also good business sense. There are no longer definite boundaries where where a company ends and society and nature begins. The basic enduring interests of the enterprise and its social and ecological environment coincide. What is good for society and for nature is also good for the company--hence what is ultimately good for the company must also be good for society and for nature. This coincidence of interests will not change in the future。on the contrary, it will become more pronounced. The successful managers of the future will be those that recognize this fact and act on it. They will be effective as well as ethical: leaders of responsible corporate citizens in the global socio-economic-ecological system that is already emerging worldwide.
Corporate culture
Corporate culture is the glue, if you will, that holds an organization together. It incorporates an organization’s values, its norms of behavior, its policies and its procedures. The most important influence on corporate culture is the national culture of the country in which the corporation is based. That may seem obvio us, but there are other factors that also help to shape a corporation’s culture—its views of and its interactions with the “outside world.” The ownership structure of the company will go a long way in defining a corporate culture. For example, the culture of a family-owned firm is likely to be quite different from that of a publicly held company. Also, the
industry that the corporation is part of will help shape its cultural values. For example, a high-tech computer software firm (a relatively young industry> is likely to have a much more informal and entrepreneurial culture than say that of an investment bank (a mature industry>. And, likewise, an organization in a service industry will have a different culture than that of a manufacturing or mining company. Differences in the corporate culture of organizations in the same home culture and industry may still be profound—sometimes as profound as the differences between national cultures themselves.
Corporate-culture components
Like national culture, corporate culture has some basic components that make up the whole. While national cultural components include such things as language, religion, and humor, the components of corporate culture tend to be more utilitarian. No one single component can reveal the true internal make-up of a corporation but when they are taken as a whole, they present a clear picture of a company’s values and goals. The key corporate cultural components are:
●The system of rewards
What type of employee behavior is appreciated and rewarded? Do risk takers move up in management ranks or does the corporation reward loyalty and long-term service instead?
●Hiring decisions
The type of individual a company hires says much about its culture. Is a company ready to grow and accept new ideas by hiring a diverse workforce or is it content to keep hiring the same type of individual to build a homogeneous workforce?
●Management structure
Does the corporation have a rigid hierarchical structure? Is it managed by an executive committee or a dominating chairman?
●Risk-taking strategy
What is the corporation’s view of risk? Does it encourage taking chances, trying new products and markets? Or is it content with well-established markets and products?
●Physical setting
Is the office an open plan that encourages communication and a sense of egalitarianism? Or are management offices segregated from the staff workplace? Is headquarter a monument to ownership or a functional working environment?
National cultural influences
As explained previously, Asians place a high value on concept associated with social harmony, while Westerners put greater emphasis on individuals’ rights and responsibilities. It is no surprise to find that Japanese corporations almost always place great emphasis on group harmony in their corporate cultures. They design a system that rewards conformity, hire staff that is relatively homogeneous and tend to shy away from risk-taking and the entrepreneurial spirit. By the same token, it should be no surprise that many American corporations are likely to hire an entrepreneurial type and reward risk. There is no escaping the fact that a national culture shapes corporate responsibilities, practices and traditions.
A pair of studies, one regarding six Asian nations completed in 1996 by Wirthlin Worldwide, and one regarding North America conducted in 1994 by David I. Hitchcock of the center for strategic and International Studies, revealed striking differences between the most cherished values of Asian and North American business executives. These studies underscore the point that national cultures do have paramount influence on the formation of corporate cultures.
In Asia the top seven values listed by executives were:
1.hard work
2.respect for learning
3.honesty
4.openness to new ideas
5.accountability
6.self-discipline
7.self-reliance
The top seven north American (United States and Canada>values were:
1.freedom of expression
2.personal freedom
3.self-reliance
4.individual rights
5.hard work
6.personal achievement
7.thinking for one’s self
Cause and effect
If you look at the traits emphasized by the business executives, you can begin to build a corporate culture—albeit a stereotype—of an Asian firm and a North American firm and to understand the differences in management technique and skills between Asian corporations and North American ones. In Asia, there is no mention of individual rights or any hint of reward for “thinking for one’s self.” Hence, the type of organizational str ucture that5 has emerged across Asia is one of a very hierarchical, bureaucratic corporation that values such intangibles as “respect for learning” and “honesty.” By the same token, taking the values stressed by North American executives, you would expect to find corporations that are less structured and more entrepreneurial than Japanese ones—and, in general, that is very much the case. Remember, though, that within the same home culture, you still get vast differences in corporate culture. While IBM and Compaq may be in the same country and in the same industry, their corporate cultures in many ways are different.
One interesting footnote from these studies was that female Asian executives had a value profile that more closely resembled that of North American. Asian women focus more on independence and self-reliance while Asian men focus more on harmony and order. This difference may be due to the fact that women have been shut out of the “old boys’ network” and have been forced to rely more on entrepreneurial skills than Asian males to succeed.
Profitable corporate culture
The concept of corporate culture is all well and good but does the concept have any measurable impact on a corporation’s bottom line or on staff behavior? It certainly does, though the impact is difficult to quantify. Having a strong corporate culture provides a clear sense of identity for staff, clarifies behavior and expectations and usually makes decision making fairly easy because so much is already defined. People know where they stand and what is expected of them. However,
a strong corporate culture also has a downside. Any corporation that has an entrenched culture will find change difficult. The inabilities to be flexible, to act quickly and to change rapidly are all competitive disadvantages in the global market economy. A weak corporate culture will simply have little influence on employee behavior.
Then it comes to the bottom line, it is important for a corporation to have a culture of accountability. With a strong accountability culture, a corporation can avoid imposing a costly monitoring system which often hurts employee morale and diminishes productivity.
Finally, if you have a weak or mistrusting corporate culture, employees will vote “w ith their feet.” In a tight labor market the bad workers will drive out the good and the situation gets even worse. A corporation will always need some type of controls but the goal is to have as few controls as possible—just enough to ensure that people d on’t violate the rules.
Employee reactions
In truth, measuring the positive or negative impact of a corporate culture on a company’s bottom line remains an elusive goal. Most companies do not quantify the effects of corporate culture. According to a 1996 global survey of business executives in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Holland, the United Kingdom and the United states done by the consultants Proudfoot PLC, only38 percent of companies indicated that they measured the effects of their efforts to change corporate culture. Yet 86 percent claimed their culture change programs are successful. Methods of measurement included employee surveys the most common practice overall>, meetings, independent surveys and informal feedback. Despite the inability to measure impact, more than half of all executives surveyed (52percent> felt that corporate culture contributes a great deal to the success of their companies. They just couldn’t say how much with any great amount of certainty.
Views of success
The main goal of any corporation is to be successful. But how you define success will, of course, have an impact on how you organize our business and its culture. Again, the influence of national culture and local expectations play a paramount role in determining the corporate view. Wirthlin Consulting’s Worldwide Monitor finds what consumers in 13 countries view as for a corporation.
Most consumers said producing the very best products and services defined success (indicating their individualistic cultures>. However, in Japan, the most notable attribute was caring about the country’s social and environmental needs—a throwback to the culture’s emphasis on the importance of the group over the individual. In Italy, if a company was well run and well managed, then it was thought to be successful--an indication of concern about that culture’s history of chaotic politics and business management. In Mexico, a stable and profitable corporation was the benchmark of success. From these responses you can see the difficulties of attempting to set up a corporate culture that can effectively move across borders and meet the diverse needs of consumers in different countries.
The ideal corporate culture
It would be impossible to give precise detail on what the perfect type of corporate culture should be for a global company. It depends so much on the cultures you are operating in, the subject industry and the basic cultural components. However, there are some basic traits:
Any culture needs to develop a sense of accountability among staff and employees.
It needs to be coherently transmitted across cultures. If it is too akin to the headquarters’ culture, employees simply won’t accept it.
Think locally, act consistently. While flexibility is important, there must be a consistent application of principles across cultures.
It must be attuned to the competitive requirements of the world market and be able to change to adapt to new market conditions.
Ervin Laszlo, The Journal of General Evolution. 1998, Vol. 52. pp.181-186.
译文：
企业文化变革
欧文.拉斯洛
在当代商业地高层阶级中,经理们开始考虑不能保持公司现在地运行模式.基本商业策略地改变正变得原来越明显.由于这种转变地影响,企业文化——追求地目标以及这些目标如何被经理们和合伙人们演绎——需要改变.因此出现了愈来愈多地对于当代企业地传
统文化方式地生存能力地质疑,以及寻找更加有效与与符合当代思想地观念去创造一个新地,更加合适地文化形式.
商业全球化运作地世界前沿正在明锐地考虑着当今世界在社会,经济,生态环境方面地变化.在高级管理层,正在当代地思考与行为模式下积极地探索.强调经理在公司策略,企业标志,企业哲学,甚至企业道德中地地位越来越惹人注意. 一个组织上地革命正在进行,经理寻求与他们合伙人之间地想法上交流.企业所有分支与阶级之间地交流地重要性正在被考虑.它也考虑到只有当人们理解管理层所追求地目标和他们在实现这个目标地过程中扮演着什么角色地时候,公司才能够运转.
在我们变化和不可预知地世界,迫切地改造企业文化是一个积极因素.这意味着企业变得越加敏感来应对变化地环境,并获得更愿意地回应.新地重点放在管理,伴随着大地社会上地角色,企业伦理也表明愿意承担责任.全球企业持前所未有地权力和影响,改造他们地文化将是一个关键地因素在一定程度上决定了我们地相互依存地经济发展与进化生
态.
变革企业文化是企业文化地主导,那即是:大半个世纪成了过时.它着眼于企业地运作不需要太多地关心它地社会和生态环境地前提下,它运作地业务交易就是交易——如果它符合优良地产品或服务,它实现了它所有地与社会和自然地义务.以自我为中心地传统地管理哲学地方法——不再获得满意效果,他们就像集中所有地技能地驾驶员驾驶飞机,在其中你飞行,全神贯注.机长不能仅仅关注当代内部地运作:他们必须设置飞机在这一过程中参考地气候条件,当前位置和预计地目地地,交通网络地路由球.多种多样,交通和复杂地.它包括了客户、供应商、分销商、研发合作伙伴、技术转包商,并政府部门和部门和许多其他地合作和竞争地飞机,配合社会、生态、甚至文化环境地各种运作.
跨国公司不再像一个巨大地机制,受控于那些总部.这是新地历史上地现代企业.对于20世纪地大多数高层管理人员可以控制公司不受结构,甚至多关心,其较低地学府.动机是由物质地刺激支持地；个人创造力和主动性被解雇是不必要地令人讨厌地东西.集中力量,连同中层管理责任相关到他地任务来.伴随这些规定,弗雷德里克?泰勒地科学管理、任务分配地总部和建立公司地职能分为个人工作部件.计划是基于一个信任控制效果和可预见性,追溯到原因并进行定量分析.公司营运在因果地基础上给出了独立于时间和地点地价值:就像一台机器,它认为相同地输入总是产生相同地输出.这是20世纪领先地企业哲学,通用公司、标准石油公司、其余地财富500强在这个模型下成功了.
经济成长环境地战后时期没有提供理由修改该理念或质疑.几乎任何一个有事业心地经理都有一个成功地诀窍,他甚至可以个人虚张声势罢了.技术进步地保证,市场拓展地好处似乎分发增长.战后经济,欢迎所有地企业家,他们能够复苏经济.长期地成本,如果有地话,被隐藏在长期地发展.在这方面,商人喜欢引用凯恩斯地观点:从长远看来,我们都要死了.如果事情变得越来越好,为什么自找麻烦去考虑更多地障碍?没有必要去担心是否会有进步,但它足以想要什么形状,公司可以从中受益.
企业文化是胶水,如果你愿意,持有一个组织在一起.它包含了一个组织地价值观、规范行为、政策和程序.最重要地影响是企业文化是民族文化地国家,公司是基础.这似乎是显而易见地,但也有一些其他地因素也有助于形成一个公司地这些观点及其互动地“外面地世界.”公司地所有权结构将长期定义一个企业文化.例如一个家族地文化公司很可能是很不同地,从单纯地公开举行地公司.同时,产业地一部分,公司将帮助形状地文化价值观.例如,一个高科技电脑软件公司地一个较为年轻地行业(可能有一个非常非正式和创业文化说,一家投资银行(一个成熟地工业部门>.一个组织,同样,在服务产业会有一个不同地文化比制造业或矿业公司.在企业文化地差异组织在同一家文化与产业可能仍然是深远地民族文化地差异自己.民族文化、企业文化具有一些基本组件.而民族文化地组成部分包括诸如语言、宗教、幽默,企业文化地成分更趋于功利.没有一个单独地组件可以展现真正地公司内部,但是当他们被视为一个整体,他们清楚地呈现出一个公司地价值观和目标.
1996年建成一个关于六个亚洲国家地一个研究, Wirthlin在1994年于北美进行地.希区柯克地战略与国际问题研究中心之间地明显差异,揭示出最珍视地价值观地亚洲和北美地公司高管.这些研究强调这一点,那就是民族文化有极为重要地影响,是企业文化地形成.
亚洲地七大价值观:
1.努力工作
2.尊重学习
3.诚实
4.接受新概念
5.负责
6.自律
7.自力更生
北美(美国和加拿大>七大价值观:
1.表达地自由
2.个人地自由
3.自力更生
4.个人权利
5.努力工作
6.个人地成就
7.自省
理想地企业文化：
它不可能给出精确地细节,完美类型地企业文化应该是一个全球性地公司.这取决于你地运营文化、主体产业和基础文化组件.然而,有一些基本地特点:
任何文化需要建立一个在员工和雇员之间地责任感.
它需要跨文化传播.如果它低于总部地文化、员工根本不会接受它.
认为行为具有一致性.而弹性是很重要地,必须有一个一致地应用原则,跨越文化.
它必须协调到世界市场竞争地要求,并且能够改变来适应新地市场形势.
欧文.拉斯洛《一般进化论》杂志,1998.52卷. pp. 181-186.
1外文文献翻译原文及译文汇总
华北电力大学科技学院 毕业设计（论文）附件 外文文献翻译 学号：121912020115姓名：彭钰钊 所在系别：动力工程系专业班级：测控技术与仪器12K1指导教师：李冰 原文标题：Infrared Remote Control System Abstract 2016 年 4 月 19 日
红外遥控系统 摘要 红外数据通信技术是目前在世界范围内被广泛使用的一种无线连接技术，被众多的硬件和软件平台所支持。红外收发器产品具有成本低，小型化，传输速率快，点对点安全传输，不受电磁干扰等特点，可以实现信息在不同产品之间快速、方便、安全地交换与传送，在短距离无线传输方面拥有十分明显的优势。红外遥控收发系统的设计在具有很高的实用价值，目前红外收发器产品在可携式产品中的应用潜力很大。全世界约有1亿5千万台设备采用红外技术，在电子产品和工业设备、医疗设备等领域广泛使用。绝大多数笔记本电脑和手机都配置红外收发器接口。随着红外数据传输技术更加成熟、成本下降，红外收发器在短距离通讯领域必将得到更广泛的应用。 本系统的设计目的是用红外线作为传输媒质来传输用户的操作信息并由接收电路解调出原始信号，主要用到编码芯片和解码芯片对信号进行调制与解调，其中编码芯片用的是台湾生产的PT2262，解码芯片是PT2272。主要工作原理是：利用编码键盘可以为PT2262提供的输入信息，PT2262对输入的信息进行编码并加载到38KHZ的载波上并调制红外发射二极管并辐射到空间，然后再由接收系统接收到发射的信号并解调出原始信息，由PT2272对原信号进行解码以驱动相应的电路完成用户的操作要求。 关键字：红外线；编码；解码；LM386；红外收发器。 1 绪论
外文文献及其翻译电子政务信息
外文文献及其翻译电子政务信息 1.政府信息化的含义？ 政府信息化是指：政府有效利用现代信息和通信技术，通过不同的信息服务设施，对政府的业务流程、组织结构、人员素质等诸方面进行优化、改造的过程。 2.广义和狭义的电子政务的定义？ 广义的电子政务是指：运用信息技术和通信技术实现党委、人大、政协、政府、司法机关、军队系统和企事业单位的行政管理活动。（电子党务、电子人大、电子政协） 狭义的电子政务是指：政府在其管理和服务职能中运用现代信息和通信技术，实现政府组织结构和工作流程的重组优化，超越时间、空间和部门分隔的制约，全方位的向社会提供优质规范、透明的服务，是政府管理手段的变革。 3.电子政务的组成部分？ ①：政府部门内部办公职能的电子化和网络化； ②：政府职能部门之间通过计算机网络实现有权限的实时互通的信息共享； ③：政府部门通过网络与公众和企业间开展双向的信息交流与策； 4．理解电子政务的发展动力？ ①：信息技术的快速发展； ②：政府自身改革与发展的需要； ③：信息化、民主化的社会需求的推动； 5.电子政务的应用模式？
模式有：1.政府对公务员的电子政务（G2E）； 2.政府间的电子政务（G2G）； 3.政府对企业的电子政务（G2B）； 4.政府对公众的电子政务（G2C）； 6.电子政务的功能？ ①：提高工作效率，降低办公成本； ②：加快部门整合，堵塞监管漏洞； ③：提高服务水平，便于公众的监督； ④：带动社会信息化发展； 7.我国电子政务发展存在的主要问题？ ①：政府公务员与社会公众对电子政务的认识不足； ②：电子政务发展缺乏整体规划和统一性标准； ③：电子政务管理体制改革远未到位； ④：电子政务整体应用水平还较低； ⑤：政府公务员的素质有待提高； ⑥：电子政务立法滞后； ⑦：对电子政务安全问题缺乏正确认识； 8.政府创新的含义和内容？ 含义：是指各级政府为适应公共管理与行政环境的需要，与时俱进的转变观念与职能，探索新的行政方法与途径，形成新的组织结
文献综述,外文翻译,论文网站
文献综述怎么写 1) 什么是文献综述? 文献综述是研究者在其提前阅读过某一主题的文献后，经过理解、整理、融会贯通，综合分析和评价而组成的一种不同于研究论文的文体。 2) 文献综述的写作要求 1、文献综述的格式 文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果，而文献综述介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，再根据提纲进行撰写工作。 前言，要用简明扼要的文字说明写作的目的、必要性、有关概念的定义，综述的范围，阐述有关问题的现状和动态，以及目前对主要问题争论的焦点等。前言一般200-300字为宜，不宜超过500字。 正文，是综述的重点，写法上没有固定的格式，只要能较好地表达综合的内容，作者可创造性采用诸多形式。正文主要包括论据和论证两个部分，通过提出问题、分析问题和解决问题，比较不同学者对同一问题的看法及其理论依据，进一步阐明问题的来龙去脉和作者自己的见解。当然，作者也可从问题发生的历史背景、目前现状、发展方向等提出文献的不同观点。正文部分可根据内容的多少可分为若干个小标题分别论述。 小结，是结综述正文部分作扼要的总结，作者应对各种观点进行综合评价，提出自己的看法，指出存在的问题及今后发展的方向和展望。内容单纯的综述也可不写小结。 参考文献，是综述的重要组成部分。一般参考文献的多少可体现作者阅读文献的广度和深度。对综述类论文参考文献的数量不同杂志有不同的要求，一般以30条以内为宜，以最近3-5年内的最新文献为主。 2、文献综述规定 1. 为了使选题报告有较充分的依据，要求硕士研究生在论文开题之前作文献综述。 2. 在文献综述时，研究生应系统地查阅与自己的研究方向有关的国内外文献。通常阅读文献不少于30篇，且文献搜集要客观全面 3. 在文献综述中，研究生应说明自己研究方向的发展历史，前人的主要研究成果，存在的问题及发展趋势等。 4. 文献综述要条理清晰，文字通顺简练。 5. 资料运用恰当、合理。文献引用用方括号[ ]括起来置于引用词的右上角。 6. 文献综述中要有自己的观点和见解。不能混淆作者与文献的观点。鼓励研究生多发现问题、多提出问题、并指出分析、解决问题的可能途径，针对性强。 7. 文献综述不少于3000字。 3、注意事项 ⒈搜集文献应尽量全。掌握全面、大量的文献资料是写好综述的前提，否则，随便搜集一点资料就动手撰写是不可能写出好的综述。 ⒉注意引用文献的代表性、可靠性和科学性。在搜集到的文献中可能出现观点雷同，有的文献在可靠性及科学性方面存在着差异，因此在引用文献时应注意选用代表性、可靠性和科学性较好的文献。 ⒊引用文献要忠实文献内容。由于文献综述有作者自己的评论分析，因此在撰写时应分清作者的观点和文献的内容，不能篡改文献的内容。引用文献不过多。文献综述的作者引用间接文献的现象时有所见。如果综述作者从他人引用的参考文献转引过来，这些文献在他人
土木工程外文文献及翻译
本科毕业设计 外文文献及译文 文献、资料题目：Designing Against Fire Of Building 文献、资料来源：国道数据库 文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2008.3.25 院（部）：土木工程学院 专业：土木工程 班级：土木辅修091 姓名：武建伟 学号：2008121008 指导教师：周学军、李相云 翻译日期： 20012.6.1
外文文献: Designing Against Fire Of Buliding John Lynch ABSTRACT: This paper considers the design of buildings for fire safety. It is found that fire and the associ- ated effects on buildings is significantly different to other forms of loading such as gravity live loads, wind and earthquakes and their respective effects on the building structure. Fire events are derived from the human activities within buildings or from the malfunction of mechanical and electrical equipment provided within buildings to achieve a serviceable environment. It is therefore possible to directly influence the rate of fire starts within buildings by changing human behaviour, improved maintenance and improved design of mechanical and electrical systems. Furthermore, should a fire develops, it is possible to directly influence the resulting fire severity by the incorporation of fire safety systems such as sprinklers and to provide measures within the building to enable safer egress from the building. The ability to influence the rate of fire starts and the resulting fire severity is unique to the consideration of fire within buildings since other loads such as wind and earthquakes are directly a function of nature. The possible approaches for designing a building for fire safety are presented using an example of a multi-storey building constructed over a railway line. The design of both the transfer structure supporting the building over the railway and the levels above the transfer structure are considered in the context of current regulatory requirements. The principles and assumptions associ- ated with various approaches are discussed. 1 INTRODUCTION Other papers presented in this series consider the design of buildings for gravity loads, wind and earthquakes.The design of buildings against such load effects is to a large extent covered by engineering based standards referenced by the building regulations. This is not the case, to nearly the same extent, in the
外文文献及翻译
文献翻译 原文 Combining JSP and Servlets The technology of JSP and Servlet is the most important technology which use Java technology to exploit request of server, and it is also the standard which exploit business application .Java developers prefer to use it for a variety of reasons, one of which is already familiar with the Java language for the development of this technology are easy to learn Java to the other is "a preparation, run everywhere" to bring the concept of Web applications, To achieve a "one-prepared everywhere realized." And more importantly, if followed some of the principles of good design, it can be said of separating and content to create high-quality, reusable, easy to maintain and modify the application. For example, if the document in HTML embedded Java code too much (script), will lead the developed application is extremely complex, difficult to read, it is not easy reuse, but also for future maintenance and modification will also cause difficulties. In fact, CSDN the JSP / Servlet forum, can often see some questions, the code is very long, can logic is not very clear, a large number of HTML and Java code mixed together. This is the random development of the defects. Early dynamic pages mainly CGI (Common Gateway Interface, public Gateway Interface) technology, you can use different languages of the CGI programs, such as VB, C / C + + or Delphi, and so on. Though the technology of CGI is developed and powerful, because of difficulties in programming, and low efficiency, modify complex shortcomings, it is gradually being replaced by the trend. Of all the new technology, JSP / Servlet with more efficient and easy to program, more powerful, more secure and has a good portability, they have been many people believe that the future is the most dynamic site of the future development of technology. Similar to CGI, Servlet support request / response model. When a customer submit a request to the server, the server presented the request Servlet, Servlet responsible for handling requests and generate a response, and then gave the server, and then from the server sent to
外文文献翻译——参考格式
广东工业大学华立学院 本科毕业设计（论文） 外文参考文献译文及原文 系部经济学部 专业经济学 年级 2007级 班级名称 07经济学6班 学号 16020706001 学生姓名张瑜琴 指导教师陈锶 2011 年05月
目录 1挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺 (1) 2什么商业银行带给小额贷款和什么把他们留在外 (2) 3 商业银行的四个模型进入小额贷款之内 (4) 3.1内在的单位 (4) 3.2财务子公司 (5) 3.3策略的同盟 (5) 3.4服务公司模型 (6) 4 合法的形式和操作的结构比较 (8) 5 服务的个案研究公司模型：厄瓜多尔和Haiti5 (9)
1 挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺 商业银行已经是逐渐重要的运动员在拉丁美洲中的小额贷款服务的发展2到小额贷款市场是小额贷款的好消息客户因为银行能提供他们一完整类型的财务的服务，包括信用，储蓄和以费用为基础的服务。整体而言，它也对小额贷款重要，因为与他们广泛的身体、财务的和人类。如果商业银行变成重的运动员在小额贷款，他们能提供非常强烈的竞争到传统的小额贷款机构。资源，银行能廉宜地发射而且扩张小额贷款服务rela tively。如果商业广告银行在小额贷款中成为严重的运动员，他们能提出非常强烈的竞争给传统的小额贷款机构。然而，小额贷款社区里面有知觉哪一商业银行进入进入小额贷款将会是短命或浅的。举例来说，有知觉哪一商业银行首先可能不搬进小额贷款因为时候建立小额贷款操作到一个有利润的水平超过银行的标准投资时间地平线。或，在进入小额贷款，银行之后可能移动在－上面藉由增加贷款数量销售取利润最大值－或者更坏的事，退出如果他们是不满意与小额贷款的收益性的水平。这些知觉已经被特性加燃料商业银行的情形进入小额贷款和后来的出口之内。在最极端的，一些开业者已经甚至宣布，”降低尺度死！”而且抛弃了与主意合作的商业银行。 在最 signific 看得到的地方，蚂蚁利益商业银行可能带给小额贷款，国际的ACCION 发展发射而且扩张的和一些商业银行的关系小额贷款操作。在这些情形的大部分方面， ACCION 和它的合伙人正在使用方法，已知的当做服务公司模型，表演早答应当做一个能工作的方法克服真正的。 商业银行的障碍进入和穿越建立长命的小额贷款操作一个商业银行 这论文描述如何服务公司模型、住址商业银行中的主要议题进入进小额贷款，监定成功建立的因素动作井小额贷款服务公司，和礼物结果和小额贷款的课servic e 公司用最长的经验，在海地和审判官席 del 的 SOGEBANK│ SOGESOL 初期结果指出那这服务公司模型表现一重要的突破在促成商业银行进入和留在小额贷款。在厄瓜多尔的 Pichincha│ CREDIFE。初期结果指出服务公司模型在促成商业广告中表现一次重要的突破银行进入而且留在小额贷款。
文献翻译英文原文
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/865512286.html,/finance/company/consumer.html Consumer finance company The consumer finance division of the SG group of France has become highly active within India. They plan to offer finance for vehicles and two-wheelers to consumers, aiming to provide close to Rs. 400 billion in India in the next few years of its operations. The SG group is also dealing in stock broking, asset management, investment banking, private banking, information technology and business processing. SG group has ventured into the rapidly growing consumer credit market in India, and have plans to construct a headquarters at Kolkata. The AIG Group has been approved by the RBI to set up a non-banking finance company (NBFC). AIG seeks to introduce its consumer finance and asset management businesses in India. AIG Capital India plans to emphasize credit cards, mortgage financing, consumer durable financing and personal loans. Leading Indian and international concerns like the HSBC, Deutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs, Barclays and HDFC Bank are also waiting to be approved by the Reserve Bank of India to initiate similar operations. AIG is presently involved in insurance and financial services in more than one hundred countries. The affiliates of the AIG Group also provide retirement and asset management services all over the world. Many international companies have been looking at NBFC business because of the growing consumer finance market. Unlike foreign banks, there are no strictures on branch openings for the NBFCs. GE Consumer Finance is a section of General Electric. It is responsible for looking after the retail finance operations. GE Consumer Finance also governs the GE Capital Asia. Outside the United States, GE Consumer Finance performs its operations under the GE Money brand. GE Consumer Finance currently offers financial services in more than fifty countries. The company deals in credit cards, personal finance, mortgages and automobile solutions. It has a client base of more than 118 million customers throughout the world
土木工程外文文献翻译
专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
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