语用学练习
1.2 a. What does cat mean? b. What does cream mean? c. What does to drink mean?
a. cat means a domestic feline;
b. cream means the liquid fat of milk;
c. drink means to consume liqui
d.
lexical semantics
dogmatic
A machine powered by dogs
automatic
1.3 What does Cats drink cream mean?
There are three ways that you can use to paraphrase this sentence. Y ou can change a) individual words; b) the sentence structure; or c) both the individual words and the sentence structure.
Possible paraphrases for our sentence:
Domestic felines consume the liquid fat of milk.
Cream is drunk by cats.
The liquid fat of milk is drunk by domestic felines.
sentence semantics
Cats chase mice.
Mice chase cats.
1.4 Mike, Annie and Mike?s cat, Felix, are in Mike?s kitchen. What did Annie mean? Mike: What happened to that bowl of cream?
Annie: Cats drink cream.
Annie is also accusing Felix of the crime.
semantic meaning=semantic paraphrase (SP)
pragmatic meaning=pragmatic paraphrase(PP)
Cats drink cream
SP: Domestic felines consume the liquid of milk.
PP: Felix probably drank the cream.
sentence/utterance
Jane: Coffee?
Steve: Sure!
Jane: White?
Steve: Black.
1.5 Provide a semantic meaning (SP) and a pragmatic meaning (PP) for It?s cold in here in two different contexts, (a) and (b) below:
(a) Mike and Annie are in the living room. Mike asks Annie whether she?d like to eat
dinner in the living room or the kitchen. Annie relies: It?s cold in here.
(b) The Queen and her butler, James, are in the drawing room. The window is open.
The Queen says: It?s cold in here.
SP: The temperature in this place is frigid.
PP: (a) Let?s eat in the kitchen.
PP: (b) James, shut the window.
1.6 Now provide a third context for It?s cold in here which would yield a third and different pragmatic meaning.
Here?s one possibility:
Mike and Annie are in the greenhouse. Mike wonders why his orchids haven?t bloomed. Annie replies: It?s cold in here.
SP: The temperature in this place is frigid.
PP: The orchids are n?t blooming because the greenhouse is too cold.
1.7 Below are several conversational extracts where the participants are discussing meaning. For each extract decide if the meaning type under discussion would be primarily the concern of semantics or pragmatics.
a) Mike: That?s an interesting hat.
Annie: What do you mean by that?
b) Steve: Listen to this. …No animal bird or reptile shall be kept in the Flat or any other
part of the building without the prior written consent of the Lessor which (if given) shall be deemed to be by way of license revocable at will.?
Jane: That just means tenants can?t have pets without the landlord?s written permission, he can take it back any time he wants to.
c) Parent: Where are your shoes, young man?
Child: Under my bed.
Parent: When I asked where your shoes were, I wanted you to put them on!
d) Ed: Lugubrious?
Faye: You know, sort of mournful, not very cheerful.
e) Dave: What did Macbeth mean when he said that life was a tale told by an idiot?
Sarah: I guess he thought that life didn?t make any sense.
1.8 Provide at least one possible paraphrase (SP) for the following sentences (a)-(d) below.
Example: The party is going to begin after he leaves.
SP: The party will commence after he departs.
Analyze your paraphrases in terms of whether you changed individual words, the sentence structure, or both
a. Her mother is unhappy.
b. My friend loathes string beans. (刀豆, 菜豆,青豆)
c. I?ll look for that book right now.
d. Steve hugged Jan
e.
a. Her mother is sad.
b. My pal hates string beans.
String beans are loathed by my friend.
String beans are hated by my friend.
c. I?ll search for that book immediately.
d. Jane was hugged by Stev
e.
Steve gave Jane a hug.
1.10 Context A:
In summertime, A and B were in a room. The air conditioner was not on.
A complained, “I?m hot.” meaning (PP:) Turn on the air conditioner.
Context B:
Mother, seeing her son return home after play, asked whether her son
liked to have cold or hot drinks. Her son replied, “I am hot.”meaning
(PP:) I would like to have cold drinks.
Context C:
Mother, seeing it was going to rain, warned her son who was going
outside with only shorts on, and said, “Put on your raincoat.”Her son
replied, “I?m hot.” meaning (PP:) I did not like to put on my raincoat.
1．11 I?m on a diet.
●I am supposed to be slimming.
●I?m full, thank you.
●My cholesterol level in blood is quite high.
Do n?t ask.
●That?s awful.
●Appalling.
●I t?s boring.
Lend me a pen.
●May I borrow your pen?
●I forgot to bring a pen.
●I don?t have a pen to write with.
1．12 (1) Pragmatics studies the factors that govern our choice of language in social interaction and the effects of our choice on others. (Crystal, 1987:120)
This definition emphasizes the absolute roles that context and language users (speaker and hearer) play. The former is instrumental in framing language users? choices of linguistic means for optimal communication outcomes, while the latter are solely responsible for the awareness of context or speech environment in which they are to perform certain functions via language or fulfill specific objectives by utilizing available linguistic means within their capability.
(2) Pragmatics can be usefully defined as the study of how utterances have meanings in situations. (Leech, 1983)
In a way, through this definition, Leech is clearing up the differences between semantics, syntax, and pragmatics. What he is trying to say here is like this: Sentences are for syntax, while utterances for pragmatics; sentence meanings free from situations are for semantics, while utterance meanings bound with situations are for pragmatics.
(3) Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said.
(Yule, 1996:3)
For George Yule, pragmatics belongs to that part of linguistics that tries to probe into those meanings over-loaded or beyond what is literally conveyed in concrete speech events and situations. In other words, it is often the case that language users are inclined to mean something more by his speech, and as to what is exactly meant by this oversaid or communicated message, it is the job of pragmatics to figure out. Apparently, Yule is
directing us to the conversational analysis of meanings, a tradition of meaning study initiated in the 1950s.
(4) There is a distinction between a hearer?s knowledge of her language and her knowledge of the world. In this section, I shall argue that it is this distinction that underlies the distinction between semantics and pragmatics. (Blakemore, 1992:39)
To Diane Blakemore, both semantics and pragmatics are related with language and to each other. However, each deals with one aspect of language. While the former is restricted to the language proper itself, the latter is pertaining to the world knowledge associated with language.
2.9 When a baby is playing with a dog, the dog bit the baby on the leg. Then
somebody said, “A dog is an animal.”
When being offered noodles, you might say,
“Noodles are just sticks made of flour.”
The bachelor is not married.
When a young man (a bachelor) is talking with a young lady, a third person might suggest that to the young lady even though the young man has a girl-friend.
2.10 My wife is a mild cat. 腼腆的女人
When asked whether his wife could do the job of being a PRO (public
relations officer), the husband said, “My wife is a mild cat.”, meaning his
wife might not be in a position to do the job.
Tom is a chicken. 胆小鬼
When asked whether Tom could be a soldier, one of his classmates said, “Tom is a chicken.”, meaning Tom might not be brave enough to act as a soldier.
Chicken:(Slang) A coward.
【俚语】胆怯者
My uncle is a real cat.
When asked about my uncle?s business, I said, “My uncle is a real cat.”, meaning my uncle is really clever at doing business.
2.11 howler: Slang
A laughably stupid blunder.
【俚语】愚蠢可笑的错误
(a) creatures vs. man
(b) woman vs. human
(c) coroner vs fatal
A public officer whose primary function is to investigate by inquest any death thought
to be of other than natural causes.
验尸官：主要职责是对被认为是死于非命的死者的死因作验尸调查的公职人员
(d) censorship vs. limitation
(e) sexes vs. poisonous and non-poisonous
(f) r eiterate vs. over and over again
2.12 grub <俚>食物
yummy: very pleasing to the taste or smell; delicious.
美味的，可口的：口感或味道非常宜人的；美味的
Yes, the first pair of sentences means the same.
Yes, so does the second pair of sentences.
Yes, so does the third pair of sentences.
Some people might not agree with the analysis of the third pair.
2.13 (c) Sb. else burnt the toast.
(d) It was not my fault. I was not to blame.
2.14 George saw a nut.
nut: An indehiscent, hard-shelled, one-loculated, one-seeded fruit, such as an acorn or a hazelnut.
坚果：一种不开裂，硬壳，单隔室，单种子的果实，如橡树果实或榛子
A seed borne within a fruit having a hard shell, as in the peanut, almond, or walnut.
坚果种子：生长在有硬壳的果实之内的种子，如花生、杏或核桃
The kernel of any of these.
坚果仁：这些坚果的仁
Slang
【俚语】
A crazy or eccentric person.
疯子，怪人：疯狂或古怪的人
An enthusiast; a buff:
狂热者：狂热的人；入迷的人：
a movie nut.
电影迷
Informal A difficult endeavor or problem:
【非正式用语】难事，难题：
Painting the closet was a tough nut to crack.
给壁橱刷漆不是件容易事
Slang The human head.
【俚语】脑袋，头
Music
【音乐】
A ridge of wood at the top of the fingerboard or neck of a stringed instrument, over which the strings pass.
琴弓：指板顶部或弦乐器琴劲处木质的凸起部分，琴弦绕在上面
A device at the lower end of the bow for a stringed instrument, used for tightening the hairs.
松紧旋纽：琴弓尾端的装置，用于松紧金属丝
A small block of metal or wood with a central, threaded hole that is designed to fit around and secure a bolt or screw.
螺母，螺帽：中部有螺纹用于与螺栓或螺钉相配合的小块金属或木头
Slang
【俚语】
The cost of launching a business venture.
本钱：开展生意所需的费用
The operating expenses of a theater, theatrical production, or similar enterprise:
经费：剧院、戏剧制作和相似事业的运作费用：
“The [theater] has simply failed to attract enough paying customers per week to meet its nut” (Variety)
“［剧院］没能每周吸引足够的顾客以解决经费问题”(种类)
nuts Vulgar Slang The testicles.
nuts 【粗俗用语】【俚语】一对睾丸
3.9 (a) What made you fight with your brother-in-law?
(b) Would you be convicted for the fourth time?
(c) How did you become a member of the terrorist organization?
(d) Why didn?t you stop speeding?
3.10 (a) For insomnia, ZONKO is your first choice.
If you have trouble getting to sleep, try ZONKO.
(b) The beautiful views at HappyHaven Inn will make your trip impressive.
(c) Why not try KISSGOOD if you are embarrassed with bad breath?
(d) Watch all the ants disappear with NO-ANT!
(e) You?re welcome to join Crook & Sons Ltd, a perfect team of skilled workers.
(f) Why don?t you try our non-poisonous BLASTEX?
(g) SHINO is your ideal choice for nourishing wood.
(h) YAPPY dog food, dogs? favorite, brings your dog a happy day.
(i) If GRIN toothpaste is dentists? choice, why isn?t it yours?
3. 11 humid (闷热)潮湿
damp (阴冷)潮湿
It was hot-----presupposition
Ed ate the raw oysters--presupposition
Ed got dressed----presupposition
3. 12 The painter broke the window.
Somebody broke the window.
3. 13 (b) ----no presupposition
4.1 a. the maxim of quantity.
b. the maxim of quantity
c. the maxim of quantity
d. the maxim of relevance
e. the maxim of clarity (manner)
4.9 I don?t like it.
Do you like this story?
It?s too long.
(flouting of quantity maxim)
Do you like coffee?
I prefer tea.
(flouting of relevance maxim)
Do you like this flower?
I think other people like it.
(flouting of relevance maxim)
Do you like this story?
It?s not something I expected.
(flouting of quantity maxim)
Do you like the dog?
The dog is dirty.
(flouting of quantity maxim)
Steve hates cats.
Does Steve like cats?
Cats are Steve?s enemy.
(flouting of quantity maxim)
Does Steve like cats?
Dogs are Steve?s favorite pets.
(flouting of relevance maxim)
Ed is lazy.
How is Ed?
Ed always does today?s work until tomorrow.
(flouting of quantity maxim)
How is Ed?
You can always find him in bed sleeping.
(flouting of relevance maxim)
4.11 You might have heard about this, but do you know a man was found dead lying on the beach yesterday. (violation of quantity maxim)
I know it might not be the case, but he was not on the spot when the murder took place. (violation of quality maxim)
Waitress: What can I get you, sir?
Customer: I?ll have the roast beef. Oh, incidentally, where?s the phone?
John: What happened during the interview today?
Mary: Well, to make a long story short, they didn?t hire me.
What?s with somebody?Spoken American English used to ask why a person or group of people is behaving strangely: What?s with you people?
What?s with something?Spoken American English
used to ask the reason for something: What?s with all the sad faces?
5.8 a. presupposition
b. presupposition
c. particularized implicature
d. generalized implicature
e. generalized implicature.
f. particularized implicature
g. generalized implicature
5.6 (d)
Tom is Gab?s son. He doesn?t like the smell of the room after the kitchen
has been painted.
(f)
Mary has a secret crush on the dentist.
5.8 (c)
The party lasted for only one hour.
(f)
Steve knows that Ed is very rich and don't care about the price of the car. As long as Ed wants to buy one, he will.(Even so, the price is within my purchasing power.)
5.11 a. generalized implicature
b. generalized implicature
c. particularized implicature
d. particularized implicature
6.9 I ?m sorry.
Context 1: I apologized to a lady for stepping on her toes.
Context 2: I apologized to a teacher for not having finished my homework on time. illocutions: apology
Context 3: A: Can you tell me who the man over there is?
B: I ?m sorry.
illocution: refusal
The gun is loaded.
Context 1: A child is trying to play with a real gun. The adult warned him of the loaded gun. Illocution: warning (Children should not take the gun.)
Context 2: A robber is saying this to a bank cashier.
Illocution: threat (money or life?)
6. 10 request
Pardon.
I beg your pardon.
Could you repeat what you?ve said?
I?m afraid I haven?t caught what you said.Could you say that again?
Can you help me?
Can I ask a favor of you?
Will you give me a hand?
Would you be kind enough to carry
this for me?
Can you do me a favor?
Can you tell me the time?
What ?s the call of time?
What ?s the time?
What time is it?
Do you have the time?
6. 11 1. perlocution: The host made coffee to the guest.
Context: When the guest just arrived, the host asked, “Do you like coffee?”
2. perlocution: The guest accepted the drink.
Context: When the host is serving coffee to the guest, the guest exclaimed, “I love coffee.”
3.perlocution: B accepted the invitation.
Context:
(Between friends)
A: Would you like to go to a café?
B: I love coffee.
6.12 a. d. f --------hearer?s response
b. c. e------speaker?s action
6.13 threaten, intimidate, frighten---- scare
coax, cajole---- persuade
bewilder, puzzle ----- confuse
treat---- entertain
imprint ---- impress
allay, pacify, appease, soothe, conciliate, mollify, calm----- placate
encourage, praise ----- inspire
What is this fly doing in my soup ?
Look like breast stroke, sir.
acknowledge，admit，own，avow，confess，concede
These verbs mean to make a disclosure, usually with reluctance or under pressure. 这些动词都表示不情愿或在压力之下揭示真相。
acknowlege 通常指公开承认某事的真实情况或自己的过错。暗示不情愿地承认过去隐瞒的东西。
He acknowledged that the purchase had been a mistake.
他承认购买那东西是个错误之举。
admit 强调因外力或良心驱使或经判断而明确承认，多含不情愿或被迫意味。承认先前想否认的东西，有时也指笼统承认某一事实。
“There are some faults which men readily admit, but others not so readily” (Epictetus). “虽然有人承认了一些错误，但另一些不是这么主动”（爱比克泰德）。
own强调对某人的思想和行为的个人接受或个人责任
She owned that she had fears for the child's safety.
她承认她对孩子的安全担心。
avow: a strong term, means to assert openly and boldly
avow 一带强烈意义的词，表示公开大胆地宣扬。
“Many a man thinks, what he is ashamed to avow. ”(Samuel Johnson).
“很多人都考虑过那些他们羞于说出来的事。”（萨谬尔·约翰逊）。
confess 语气重，指比较正式地供认自己的罪恶、缺点等，含坦白忏悔的意味。
I have to confess that I lied to you.
我得承认我对你撒了谎。
The prisoner ______ having robbed the bank and took away a lot of banknotes.
a. admitted
b. confessed
c. acknowledged
d. conducted
concede：To acknowledge, often reluctantly, as being true, just, or proper 承认：通常是不情愿地承认…是真的、公正或合适的
own : stresses personal acceptance of and responsibility for one's thoughts or deeds:
concede：is to admit something, such as the validity of an argument, often against one's will
concede 指在事实与证据面前勉强或不得不承认。
The lawyer refused to concede that the two cases were at all similar. 律师拒绝做出这两宗案件相似的表示。
apologize : regret
repent
6.17 Help !
Catch the thief !
The house in on fire !
6.18 A boy had made a silly mistake of getting a golden fish out of aquarium. When his parents came back, they were very surprised to see the fish dead. Dad shouted at the boy, “Weren?t you silly ? ”The little boy, scared out of his wits, just nodded. Mum said to Dad, “He hereby admits he was silly.”
7.13 (a) pseudo-directive (a true representative)
(b) pseudo-directive (a true expressive)
(c) indirect directive
(d) indirect directive
(e) pseudo-directive (a true expressive)
(f) pseudo-directive (a true expressive)
7.14 7.1 中（a）句属于无法实现的承诺。这是因为原句虽然属于承诺，但听话人无法理解说话人的话语，所以承诺无法实现。
(b) threat
(c) expectation
(d) acknowledgement
(e) expectation
(f) wish
7.15 We find the defendant guilty. (indirect directive : Put him into prison.) (speaker : jury)
Tom?s eating grapes. (indirect commissive : I?ll invite you to KFC if you can persuade Tom to eat grapes.)
Bill was an accountant. (indirect commissive : If Bill was an accountant, I would employ him.) (speaker : a boss)
I?m sorry to hear that. (indirect directive : The boss told his employees that if anyone was late twice in a week, that employee was to be fired. One of the employees told the boss one morning that it was the second time that he was late in a week. The boss replied, “I?m sorry to hear that.”, meaning you are dismissed (fired).
This beer is disgusting. (indirect directive : A waiter serves you with a new brand of beer. When you have a taste, you complained, “This beer is disgusting. ”，meaning you?d rather have another brand.)
Sit down. (indirect commissive : If you don?t sit down, I?ll not begin my speech.) (speaker to audience)
Fasten your seat belts. (indirect commissive : If you don?t fasten your seat belts, I?ll not start the car.) (driver to passengers)
Where did he go ? (indirect expressive : A boss found an employee disppeared while working. He got angry and shouted, “Where did he go ?”)
Is she leaving ? (indirect directive : A woman was seriously injured in a car accident, she told the nurse she wanted to leave. The nurse reported to the doctor and the doctor was shocked, saying “Is she leaving ?”)
I?ll call you tonight. (indirect directive : contact through mobile phone between friends. “Don?t shut your mobile phone tonight.”
We?re going to turn you in. (indirect directive : a thief was caught by the victim . “Give back my money, or we?ll turn you in”.)
7．17 （a）thanking :
①The action must be needed by or desirable to the speaker.
②The action causing thanks must have already happened.
③The speaker feels gratitude or appreciation towards the hearer.
(b) commanding
①The commanded act must not be something that has already happened or would
happen anyway.
②The speaker must be in a position to command the hearer to perform the act.
③The commanded act must be something the hearer is willing or obligated to carry out if
asked.
④The commanded act must be something which the hearer is capable of carrying out.
⑤The commanded act must be something which is needed by or desirable to the
speaker.
(c) naming a ship
①The person who performs the act of christening must be authorized to do so.
②Presumably, the speaker must produce the utterance in the course of a more or less
well-established ceremony.
(d) apologizing
①The speaker did something wrong to the hearer in the past.
②The speaker wanted to express regret for the wrong doing.
③The speaker believes in making it up with the hearer by apologizing.
(e) congratulating
①The speaker is glad to know the successful news of the hearer.
②It will be desirable to the hearer if the speaker say so.
③The hearer?s success is not easily won.
(f) performing a marriage
①The person who performs a marriage must be authorized to do so.
②Presumably, the speaker must produce the utterance in the course of a more or less
well-established ceremony.
1. What is the significance of deixis in pragmatics?
2. What ate the classifications of deixis?
3. Why do you think deixis fall under the research scope of pragmatics?
语用学重点
1、什么是语用学 答：语用学，即语言实用学，是研究语言运用及其规律的科学。它研究在特定的情境中的特定话语，特别是研究在不同的语言交际环境下如何理解语言和语言运用。包括话语的交际过程、话语的交际原则、制约话语交际的各种因素、怎样准确而又得体地进行表达、怎样对话语进行准确的理解以及语体和风格等一系列内容。 2、语用学的三大要素 答：话语实体、语用主体、语言环境三大要素。核心要素、内部要素——话语实体(内容)——客体；外部要素——语用主体（人）和语言环境；话语的意义和内容是语用研究的核心。 3、言语行为（直接/间接）P12 答：（1）言语行为理论由英国哲学家奥斯汀提出来的。在他的《论言语行为》一书中，提出了三种言语行为。①言内行为：通过话语字面意义来达到某种思想的发话行为。②言外行为：除字面意义外,还伴随着说话人强烈的心理意向,如承诺、请求、指令、宣告、威胁等等。这些主观意图可由行事动词在话语表层显露。③言后行为：说话人欲通过话语取得某种效果 例如：周朴园：窗户谁叫打开的(曹禺《雷雨》) 从言内行为看——表示询问；从言外行为看——暗含“把窗户关上”的意思；从言后行为看——鲁侍萍听出了他的意思，“很自然地走到窗户前，关上窗户。” （2）美国语用学家塞尔对奥斯汀的理论做了新的发展。他区分了直接言语行为和间接言语行为。 P15 ①直接言语行为：有行事动词出现的、一目了然的行为。 ②间接言语行为则包含下面的多种情况：语言表层没有明确表示心理意向的行事动词的言语行为；通过一种言语行为来间接地执行另外一种言语行为；一段具体的话语可以表示多种不同的言语行为。换言之，某一个言语行为可以有多种不同含义。 4、话语P25 答：话语是语用的基本单位，能表达说话人想要表达的意思，具有完整的交际功能的语言片段。 5、语用原则（合作/礼貌）P16 答：目前讨论较多的语用原则为：合作原则和礼貌原则 (一)合作的原则——美国哲学家、语用学家格赖斯1967年提出，简称CP原则（cooperation principle）。 （1）质的原则。要求说话人的话是真实的，有根据的，不能自相矛盾或虚假。这是“说什么”的问题。 （2）量的原则。要求说话人提供给听者的信息量既足够又不超出。这是“说多少”的问题。（3）关系原则。要求所说的话要紧扣话题，同交际意图密切关联。这是说“为什么说”的问题。（4）方式原则。要求话语清楚明白，简洁，井井有条。这是“如何说”的问题。 (二)礼貌的原则——英国语言学家利奇1983年提出，简称PP原则（politeness principle）（1）得体的:减少有损于他人的观点,增大有益于他人的观点。 （2）宽容的:减少有益于自己的观点,增大有损于自己的观点。 （3）表扬的:减少对他人的贬降,增大对他人的赞誉。 （4）谦逊的:减少对自己的赞誉,增大对自己的贬降。 （5）同意的:减少与他人在观点上的不一致，增大与他人在观点上的共同点。 （6）同情的:减少对他人的反感,增大对他人的同情。 （三）其他小类原则 P18 主要还有荷恩级差原则；列文森三原则；斯波柏、威尔逊的关联原则。还有顺序的原则，同现的原则，角色关系的原则，选择的原则等。 6、语用预设（前提）
语言学期末考试
1. The study of language development over a period of time is generally termed as _____linguistics. D A. applied B. diachronic C. comparative D. synchronic 2. The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a __C__ formula "S→NP VP". A. hierarchical B. linear C. tree diagram D. vertical 3. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? A A. [p] B.[m] C.[b] D.[t] 4. The words ―make‖ and ―bus‖ are called _____D____because they can occur unattached. A. derivational morphemes B .inflectional morphemes C. bound morphemes D. free morphemes 5. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are____B______. A. gradable antonymy B. relational (converse) antonymy C. synonyms D. co-hyponyms 6. The semantic components of the word ―man‖ can be expressed as ____C___. A.＋animate,＋human,＋male,－adult; B.＋animate,＋human,－male,－adult; C.＋animate,＋human,＋male,＋adult D.—animate,＋human,－male,－adult 7. What kind of function does the sentence ―How do you do?‖ have? B A. Directive B. Phatic C. Informative D. Evocative 8. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as_______A____. A. lexical words B. grammatical words C. function words D. form words 9. Which of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?______A_. A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use 10. The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called __C? A. morphology B. sociolinguistics C. pragmatics D. psycholinguistics 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.
语言学重点概念总结
Design features（定义特征）: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic（共时的）: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（历时的）: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive（规定式）: to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive（描写式）: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence（语言能力）: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance（语言运用）:
the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue（语言）: the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole（言语）: the concrete utterances of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Phonology（音系学）： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include
语用学选择题
I.Define the following terms: (15%) 5个 II.Indicate the following statement true or false, mark “T”for the true statements and “F” for the false. (10%) 10题 III.From A, B, C and D, choose the appropriate one to complete the following statements. (20%) 20题 IV.Fill in the blanks with the following word which completes the statements. (20%) 20题 V.Answer the following questions. (35%) 四题 1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English. (5%) Exampl e：[i] front mid-high unrounded short 2. Pick out ten minimal pairs from the following words. (10%) 3. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences by providing two sentences that paraphrase the multiple meanings. (10%) 4. Answer the questions (10%) 复习题 1. Language is passed on from one generation to the next through , rather than by instinct. A. learning B. teaching C. learning and teaching D. acquisition 2.Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementarity? . A. Lend/Borrow B. Single/Married C. Hot/Cold D. Old/Young 3. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop? . A. [p] B. [m] C. [b] D.[r] 4. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to使发生，引起.
社会语言学导论考试重点
社会语言学的研究对象 （一）定义和解释 社会语言学（sociolinguistics）是联系社会各种因素对语言进行的研究，探讨语言在社会环境中的变化、功能及其使用的一般规律。 概括来说对语言的研究大致有四个角度：部研究、外部研究、比较研究、应用研究。 社会语言学属于对语言的外部研究，但并不是纯粹的外部研究。 （二）研究对象的不同界定 1.布莱特（美国）1964 （1）说话人的身份； （2）听话人的身份； （3）言语事件的社会环境； （4）社会方言的分析； （5）言语行为的社会评价； （6）语言变异的程度； （7）社会语言学的实际应用。 2.礼德（英国） （1）语言宏观社会学、语言人口统计学； （2）双语、多语、多方言研究； （3）语言规、语言发展和规化； （4）语言混合； （5）社会方言； （6）社会语言学和教学； （7）言语的人种史、语言环境； （8）语域和言语能力； （9）语言变化的社会因素； （10）语言和社会化及其传播； （11）社会语言学的方法； （12）语言体系的功能理论； （13）语言相对性； （14）话语理论； （15）人种方法论的语言学。 3.祝畹瑾《社会语言学概论》（1992） 总的来说，社会语言学研究的对象主要包括五个方面： （1）一个国家或地区的语言状况如双语、多语或多方言状况，以及各类言语共同体使用语言的状况和特征； （2）各类语言变体的构造特点及其社会功能； （3）社会以及不同集团对各种语言或语言变体的评价和态度以及由此产生的社会效应；（4）由于社会、文化、经济、政治等原因以及语言接触所引起的语言变化的方式和规律；（5）交际情景与选择语码之间的关系以及语码选择与人际关系的相互作用。 4.戴庆厦《社会语言学概论》（2004） （1）社会因素（阶级、阶层、职业等）对语言结构的影响； （2）个人因素（年龄、性别、性格等）对语言的影响； （3）语言政策、双语等； （4）社会因素引起的语言关系，如语言接触、语言融合；
语言学基础期末复习提纲(整理版)
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。 导论 1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。 4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。 5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。 第一章语言的功能 1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。 2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。 3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。 4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。 5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。 6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。 第二章语言是符号系统 1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。） 2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。 3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。 4、语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系 5、符号和符号组合起来，结构中各个成分的关系称为组合关系，符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 第三章语音和音系 1、语音具有自然属性、社会属性的双重属性，从自然属性出发，针对所有人类语言的语音研究，属于语音学的研究；从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中其什么作用的研究，属于音系学的研究。 2、音系学的出发点在于语音在语言系统中的组织方式，属于语言学的核心部分。 3、以语音的自然属性和人类语言共性为研究对象的语音学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音素。以语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用为研究对象的音系学，把语音最小的线性单位叫做音位。
语用学课程感想
英语语用学课程感想 语用学研究在特定情景中的特定话语，特别是研究在不同的语言交际环境下如何理解语言和运用语言。它主要包含指示语、语用含义、预设、言语行为理论、合作原则和礼貌原则、语用失误等等。通过对这些内容的学习，对我们英语师范生的语言和交际能力的提高具有十分重要的指导意义：我们可以在交际中自觉遵守语用规则，得体合适地理解捕捉对方说话意图，准确表达自己意思。例如，“ Please”这个单词通常是在提出各种请求时用以表示礼貌的一个客套话，它在表示礼貌的程度上是很轻微的。但在某些情况下，用它反而会加强命令的语气，比如，“Will you please sit down ?”这句话就不能用于招呼到来家中的重要客人。对于“please”一词，老师给我们布置给出中文句子翻译成带有“please”的课堂作业加以巩固：1)Two coffees, please. 2)May I ask a favor of you? 3)Visitors are requested not to touch the exhibits. 4)Allow me to introduce Professor Zhang, ect. 当然，单单靠一本语用学教科书，上课听老师讲解对于显著提升自己的语用能力是远远不够的。在课后，我试图多渠道接触真实语材料, 在真实的语言环境下理解、掌握其功能意义和用法。比如，我利用周末的空闲看美剧《摩登家庭》，这部美剧主要围绕三个有关联的美国家庭展开。在第三季中就多处出现感谢的表达法: “It' s very nice of you .”“ I appreciate your help .”“ I appreciate it .”“ Thanks anyway .”以及应答用语: “I' m glad that I could help .”“Glad that I could help .”“ Don' t mention it .”“ It was nothing .”“My pleasure .”“Any time”. 通过接触了真实语料，我们认识到并不是只可以讲单一的“Thank you" “You' re welcome”，还有以上多种表达法。学会用不同的语言表达谢意，在真实交际中会给人耳目一新的感觉。此外朱老师在课堂上强调英语学习者易混的表达，如“Don't mention it" 是用来回答“Thank you"的，而“Never mind "是用来回答“ I’m sorry"的。经过老师的讲解，我才纠正了以前把这俩表达混着用的毛病。 再比如2015年6月3日的课讲到社交失误，这一行为的产生很多时候是由于双方的文化背景迥异，这一语用学概念涉及跨文化交际学科，因此要学好语用学，还得从其交叉、相联系的学科着重研究，加强文化因素的系统学习，提高自身对中西方化差异尤 其是中英美文化的敏感性和适应性，才能“啃”透语言学。 以下是个人对朱老师的评价与建议： 1）朱老师善于利用教材，教材内容设计得不够全面的地方，老师专门收集资料整理成word文档并展示给我们。 2）朱老师课堂语言幽默风趣，不过还是非常有教授风度的。老师还和我们分享了在广外的求学经历，讲到某一个语言学理论是他以前的老师提出来的，有如师生亲切聊家常，进一步拉近师生距离。 3）朱老师提供的课堂作业经典且具有挑战，大多都是根据我们当节课学习的重点有针对性的出题。课程结束了我仍对题目记忆犹新，有些题目值得抄下来多番斟酌品味。4）朱老师上课形象生动，记得上学期在课堂上老师还充满感情地给我们唱了阎维文的《父亲》和《母亲》。 关于意见和建议，朱老师可以多和学生互动，通过提问或头脑风暴的方式与学生碰撞出思维的火花。每次的课堂作业，老师可以批改完后发回给我们，下节课针对我们做错的地方集中性评讲。因为一周只有一节课，上周写的答案等下周评讲时可能会忘记，因此可以让我们先看到自己做错的地方并思考，再听老师的讲解，这样达到的教学效果可能高一些。有个小小温馨提示：由于朱老师低血糖，向学院申请不要将其课调到最后一节不知是否可行，毕竟健康第一，工作第二。
《语用学》复习提纲
本次考试共四种题型：填空题、名词解释、简答题、应用题 填空题：（举例如：）（每空1分，共10分） 1.语用学源于哲学家对语言的探索。“语用学”这一术语是由美国哲学家（莫里斯）于1938年首先提出的。 2. 1977年，(《语用学杂志》)在荷兰正式出版发行，“语用学成为语言学的一门独立新兴学科”最终得到认可。 名词解释：（每个4分，共20分） ?语用学：研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则。 ?语境：语境是人们运用自然语言进行言语交际的言语环境。语境是人们在语言交际中理解和运用语言所依赖的各种表现为言辞的上下文或不表现为言辞的主观因素。 ?指示词语：指示词语就是表示指示信息的词语。？ ?隐性施为句：人们在言语交际中实际上更经常使用一些不那么明确、不那么特定的语言手段来实施某种行为。 ?优选结构：相邻对中所有可能跟始发语配对的应答语并不具有同等地位，有一组优选结构在起作用，即各种可能的应答语中至少有一类是“合意的”（即听话人的应答能满足说话人发话的期待），有一类是“不合意的”（即听话人的应答不是说话人所期待的）。 ?预示序列：说话人在以言行事之前用以探听虚实的一类话语。说话人使用这类话语的主要动机是考察有无向听话人实施某一言语行为的可能性，即说话人实施某一言语行为能否从听话人那里得到“期待的”反应。 ?会话含义：格赖斯将会话含义分为两类：一般性会话含义和特殊性会话含义。一般性会话含义：不需要特殊语境就能推导出来的含义。特殊性会话含义：需要依赖特殊语境才能推导出来的含义。？ ?直接言语行为：字面意义和说话意图相吻合，也就是句子的结构和功能之间存在着直接的关系。 ?间接言语行为：人们是通过间接的表达方式实现说话的意图，也可以说句子的结构和功能之间存在着间接的关系
语言学重要概念梳理(中英文对照版)
第一节语言的本质 一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features） 1.任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的 声音，各国不同的表达方式 2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning） 3.多产性productive: 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层 结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences） 4.移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将 来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等 5.文化传播性 Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中 掌握 二、语言的功能（Functions of Language） 1.传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function 2.人际功能 Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能 establish and maintain their identity 3.行事功能 performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge， naming，and curses 4.表情功能 Emotive Function：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句 exclamatory expressions 5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？” “天儿真好啊！”等等 6.元语言功能 Metalingual Function：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如 book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的 “书” 三、语言学的分支 1. 核心语言学 Core linguistic 1)语音学 Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语 言中的单音。Its main focus is on the articulation， transmission and reception of human sounds， especially isolated sounds 2)音位学Phonology：从功能的角度出发对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其 组合、分布规律进行研究的语言学分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective. 3)形态学 Morphology：研究单词的内部构造the internal structure of words 4)句法学 Syntax：研究组词造句的规则the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
语言学简答(期末)
1. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do nobody language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language 答：On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means OK/YES for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying NO. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant. 2. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive What’s your comment on them (1)Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind. (2)colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people. (3)civilized : This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world. 答：They are undoubtedly descriptive, Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way antisexist advocators speak and write. 3.(1)What organs are involved in speech production 答：Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the luns, the trachea, the throat, the nose, and the mouth. (2)Why did George Bernard Shaw say he could spell the word ‘fish’ as ‘ghoti’ 答：This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in ‘enough’, o as [I] in women, and ti as [?] in nation. (3)How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels 答：Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. (4)To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ 答：Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. (5)’Assimilation is often used synonymously with coarticulation’. Discuss. 答：Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation,
语言学总结
语言总结 1、世界上有很多种语言，它们的文字有表意的，如中文，还有哪些语言的文字是表意的？ 2、世界上还有很多种语言，它们的文字是表音的，也就是拼音文字，如英文，还有哪些语言的文字是表音的？ 3、是不是印欧语系的文字都是表音的呢？ 4、韩国和日本的文字是表音的吗？ 答： 1。现在世界上的正式使用的文字，只有汉字是表意的。 2。欧洲人使用的文字，包括英，法，俄，意，德等等都是拼音文字。 3。对的。 4。韩国和朝鲜使用的文字一样，都是拼音文字。日文比较特殊，是音义混用。日语里，汉字，假名混用，其中汉字和我们的汉字一样，就是从中国学的，假名是日本人自己发明的，是表音的。 世界上的文字类型主要有表形文字、表意文字、表音文字，它们大体标志着文字发展的三个不同阶段。就文字的发展规律和文字的功能来看，表音文字是文字发展的趋势。 1、表形文字也叫象形文字。表形文字属于人类文字发展的最初阶段，表形文字通过描摹客观事物外部 形象的方式记录和表达该事物，但是表形文字严格地说还不是体系严整、功能完善的文字系统。因为：①它们还不能直接与语言中的词语准确地结合；②可以表义，但不能准确表达词语、更不能准确表音；③而且这种文字只能表示具体的事物，不能表示抽象概念； 2、表意文字是人类文字发展过程中介于表形文字和表音文字之间的一个阶段。表意文字的通过象征性图形符号，表达语言中的词或者语素的意义。图形符号往往通过结构成分和结构关系来表达简单或复杂的意义，图形符号的意义并不能“直接看出来”，而且文字的意义和所记录语词的读音具有对应的关系。因此表意文字表意文字已经是系统严整的文字符号体系，能够表记语言中的词汇，能够记录和表现语言的语法关系。表意文字包括词字、词素字等类型。 3、表音文字又叫字母表文字、拼音文字，使用少量的字母记录语言中的语音，从而记录声语言，在数量上便于学习和使用，方便排序，具有客观可操作性。世界上大多数国家的文字都是表音文字。表音文字可包括音节文字、音素文字（或称音位文字）等类型。 据联合国调查，目前全世界大约有多少种语言？语言是人类最重要的交际工具，它是以语音为物质外壳，以词汇为建筑材料，以语法为结构规律而构成的体系。世界语言十分复杂，专家估计大要有5000－7000种。但是我们应该注意到各国的学者所统计的结论是相差悬殊的，其说法也极不一致。根据德国语言学家在1979年的统计，当时世界上已经查明的语言有5651种；有个学者说“我的印象中感觉有几千种，具体多少也说不清，就去查资料，还真说不清。一般大概说当今世界拥有60亿人口，200多个国家和地区，2500
语用学练习题
英语语言学练习----语用学 一、Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. 1.The contextual view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense. ( ) 2.Pragmatics is related to and also different from semantics. ( ) 3.The notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language. ( ) 4.All utterances take the form of sentences. ( ) 5.Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s. ( ) 6.Grice made a distinction between what he called “constatives” and “performatives”. () 7.A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. ( ) 8.In their study of language communication, linguists are only interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and pay no attention to how his intention is recognized by the hearer. ( ) 9.Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. ( ) 10.The Cooperative principle was proposed by John Searle. ( ) 11.There are four maxims under the Cooperative principle. ( ) 12.The violations of the maxims make our language indirect. ( ) 13.All the utterances take the form of sentences. ( ) 14.Austin thought that stating was also a kind of act, and that we can perform with language. ( )
语言学复习重点
一、Antonymy（反义词）：（书本P70） 1.Gradable antonyms（分程度反义词）：a matter of degree. eg. Old—middle-aged—younghot-warm-cold https://www.wendangku.net/doc/4a7880312.html,plementary antonyms（互补关系）：a matter of degree between two extremes. eg. Alive—dead; male—female 3.relational opposites（关系反义词）：pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items. eg. father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient；buy-sell；above-below 二、Paul Grice（保罗·格莱斯）提出的两个概念（书本P86） 1.conventional implicature（规约含意，约定俗成的）：is based on the conventional meaning of certain words in the language. eg. He is rich but he is not greedy. 2.particularized conversational implicature（特殊规约隐涵）：is inferred by the hearer with reference to the context of communication. eg. A：Where is the steak? B：The dog looks very happy. 三、Charles Hockett（霍凯特）提出的人类语言的识别特征之一（书本P8） Arbitrariness（随意性）：There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. eg. Rumble, crash, cackle, bang 四、Free morpheme（可独立存在的）：a morpheme which can be a word by itself. eg. boy（书本P33） 五、新构词（书本P99） 1.blending（拼缀，紧缩法）：a blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words. eg. Smog --- smoke+fog; motel---- motor+hotel 2.acronyms（首字母缩写，词首字母缩略法）：are words derived from the initials of several words eg.IT-----information technology; CPI---- consumer price index 六、Languageaptitude（语言能力倾向，语言学能）：the natural ability for learning a second language.（书本P164） 七、Semantic Changes（语意变化）：（书本P102） 1.semantic broadening（扩展，意思越来越广，语义扩大化） 2.semantic narrowing（意思变小） 3.semantic shift（转换） 八、indirect speech act（间接言语行动）：which aimed to explain indirect language in the light of the speech act theory.（书本P84-85） 1.The primary speech act is the speaker’s goal of communication while the secondary