自考英语语言学Chapter_10_Language_Acquisition

Chapter 10 Language Acquisition语言习得

一、本章纲要

二、本章重点

Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up. The development of a first or native language (L1)

is called first language acquisition (FLA), and then second language acquisition (SLA). L1 and L2 development do not seem to involve identical processes. 语言习得关注的是人类语言能力发展。语言习得一般指儿童母语的发展。有些孩子除了习得母语外，还要继续习得第二语言或外国语。习得母语或第一语言称为第一语言习得，除了母语再习得另一门语言或外语称为第二语言习得。

The study of language acquisition enables linguists, psychologists and applied linguists to better understand the nature of human language and developmental processes of language acquisition.

1.First language acquisition第一语言习得

Whatever their culture, all normal human beings acquire their native language at a given time of life and in an appropriate linguistic environment that provides sufficient language exposure.

(2004, 2007, 判断) It is an established understanding among linguists that the capacity to acquire one’s first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with.

No one is more successful than others in acquiring a first language. Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyntactic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. 儿童在习得母语时虽然会有个性差异，但是正常儿童只要有正常的交际环境和正常的母语输入都可以成功地习得母语，他们习得母语的过程也非常相似。

1.1The biological basis of language acquisition语言习得的生物基础

This biological, or nativist 天赋, view of language acquisition means that humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use. Our language faculty permits us to acquire any human language to which we are exposed to, including deaf children acquiring a sign language. Different languages have a similar level of complexity and details, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic system called the Universal Grammar普遍语法.

习得语言的能力是人类的生物特征之一。人生来就有习得语言的神经系统。只要有能力习得某一种语言的儿童就有能力不费力气地习得任何语言。正常儿童语言习得的能力无高低之分；儿童习得的语言也无优劣之别。虽然在习得语言某一特定的内容与习得另一种语言相应的内容看上去似乎有难易之别，但是这并不意味着一门语言作为母语比另一门语言难学。儿童在习得母语时所需要的时间大致是一样的。这在一定的程度上表明人类语言的难度是类似的，反映了普遍语法(universal grammar)的存在---一种高度抽象的语言共性体系。

(2006，判断) A child born to Chinese or English speaking family takes about the same number of years to acquire their native tongue, regardless of their general intelligence.

1.2Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules语言习得是语法规则的习得

（2007,单选；2008，判断）Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language. It is misleading to speak of children acquiring language simply as internalizing individual expressions of language.

What are actually acquired by young children are some general principles that are fundamental to the grammaticality of speech. It is noted that when producing utterances, children tend to apply general grammatical rules and defy individual irregular cases.语言习得是对语法规则系统的习得。首先，没有人的大脑能够储存一个语言中的所有的词与表达。儿童在处理语言时会根据所听到的语言输入构件自己的语法规则，并依据他们所构件的语法规则去说话。如果没有这些生成性的规则，语言使用者是不可能说出和理解无数的他们从没有听过或使用的句子。

语言习得主要是句法体系的习得，但是这并不意味着习得一条一条具体的语法条条框框。儿童实际所习得的是一些数量有限的抽象而高度概括的规则，他们会忽视这些规则的例外情况。比如，儿童可能在一个名词后边加-s构成名词的复数，而不管这个名词是否是规则还是不规则的。因此儿童在习得语言中的错误是体系的，也是可预见的。

1.3The role of input and interaction语言输入与交流的作用

Children must be provided with an appropriate linguistic environment. The modified speech typically addressed to young children is called（2006，名词解释）caretaker speech, also known as babytalk, mothers-es, or parentese. Exposure to this type of language makes it easier for children to match linguistic forms with their meanings and for that reason, their acquisition of the vocabulary and structure of the language is made easier. 虽然人类习得语言的能力是人类天赋的生物特征，但是这种天赋的条件不是习得语言的充要条件。一个正常的儿童还需要有接触语言和使用语言的环境才能习得语言。如果在孩子出生后前几年，没有接触语言和使用语言的环境，那么孩子习得语言的能力就会受到严重的影响。

保姆语(caretaker speech, babytalk, motherese, parentese)是一种成年人的简化语言形式，通常用于和儿童的交际。研究表明没有接触保姆语的儿童在习得母语的速度上并不一定比接触保姆语的儿童习得母语慢。这意味着保姆语的存在对习得母语并不是必要条件。但是保姆语有助

于儿童建立语言形式与语义的关系，有助于孩子对语言的理解，使得词汇习得和结构习得变得相对容易些。

1.4The role of instruction语言教学的作用

(2007，填空) Linguists have found that for the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires little conscious instruction有意识教育on the part of adults.

正常儿童在习得母语时并不需要刻意的语言教学的帮助。在自然的环境中，父母很少纠正孩子在交际中所出现的语法错误。即使父母这样去做，他们的努力也是收效甚微。也没有证据表明儿童需要这种形式的知识传授。如：

Child: I taked a cookie.

Parent: Oh, you mean you took a cookie.

Child: Yes, that's right, I taked it.

当然这并不是说语言的教学对儿童语言的发展没有作用，只是作用较小。

1.5The role of correction and reinforcement纠错与强化的作用

Proponents of Behaviorist learning theory suggested that a child’s verbal behavior was conditioned through association between a stimulus and the following response. Children are believed to gradually assume correct forms of the language of their community when their “bad”speech gets corrected and when their good speech gets positively reinforced. Researchers have found that correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development. Reinforcement has been found to occur usually in children’s pronunciation or reporting of truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences.

行为主义的理论认为儿童的言语行为主要通过刺激与反应来建立。正确的言语行为被强化，错误的言语行为得到纠正，从而使儿童逐渐获得正确的使用语言的行为。现代研究表明纠错与强化在儿童第一语言习得过程中并不起关键作用，如：

Child: Nobody don't like me.

Mother: No, say "Nobody likes me."

Child: Nobody don' t like me.

[This type of exchange is repeated eight times. ]

Mother: No, now listen carefully; say "Nobody likes me."

Child: Oh! Nobody don't LIKES me.

一般来说，在儿童习得母语的过程中，父母会对儿童的发音进行强化，对儿童说话的真值进行强化。

1.6The role of imitation模仿的作用

Children do not blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted ways to improve their linguistic skills. Imitation, like overt teaching, plays at best a very minor role in the child’s mastery of language.

模仿在母语习得中所起的作用不大。儿童从所接收到的语言输入中发现构件自己的语言规则。如果习得母语的过程是被动模仿的过程，那么他们所犯的许多错误就不能得到很好地解释，因为这些错误是成年人言语中所不存在的。例如儿童常把my feet,说成my foots,把went说成goed,把made说成maked等。

除此之外，由于生理缺陷不能说话的儿童却能学会一门语言。

孩子在学习母语时不是盲目的模仿，而是选择性地使用模仿，比如利用选择性模仿学习词汇。但是模仿本身在母语习得中并不起关键作用。

2.Stages of first language acquisition第一语言习得的发展阶段

There is substantial variation among children in terms of the age at which particular features of linguistic development occur. Some stages last short, some longer, some overlap for a short period, and the transition between stages may be sudden.

(2008，简答) Starting from the prelinguistic cooing and babbling stage, children move through the one-word, two-word and multiword stages; gradually acquiring phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary, semantics, and discourse skills of the adult language system as they grow.

儿童在习得母语时所经历的发展阶段十分相似，几乎具有普遍性：前语言阶段、独词句阶段、双词句阶段以及多词句阶段。各个阶段可能会有交叉。儿童在各个阶段所需的时间有其个性差异。

2.1 The prelinguistic stage前语言阶段

1)The earliest sounds produced by infants cannot be considered early language. The noises such as cries and whimpers呜咽of the newborn in all language communities sound the same. The first recognizable sounds are described as cooing, with velar consonants such as /k/ and high vowels such as /u/ usually present.

2)Around the age of three or four months, children begin to babble speech-like sounds. Meaningless, it does not depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input.

3)By the age of six months when they are able to sit up, children are heard producing a number of different vowels and consonants.

4)When they begin to pull themselves into a standing position through the 10th and 11th months, they are capable of using their vocalizations to express emotions and emphasis, and of attempting at the grand task of language acquisition. Thus begin the linguistic stages of first language acquisition.

处于前语言阶段的婴儿能运用发音器官发出各种声音。到六个月时，儿童能发出许多不同的元音和辅音。

前语言阶段的声音其语音结构不以任何一种人类语言为基础，婴儿所发出的有些咿呀学语声非婴儿所处社区的语言所有。事实上，在咿呀学语阶段，一个正常孩子所发出的音与一个失去听力的儿童所发出的音没有什么区别，这说明儿童的咿呀学语不依赖儿童的语言输入。

2.2 The one-word stage独词句阶段

（2005，单选）At some point in the late part of the first year or the early part of the second year, the babbling stage gradually gives way to the earliest recognizable stage of language, often referred to as the one-word stage, which is also called holophrastic sentence because they are associated with an entire sentence. One-word utterances sometimes show an overextension or underextension. The age at which children pass through one-word stage varies significantly from child to child.

在独词句阶段，儿童开始把语音与意义相联系。儿童使用一个词可以起到一句话的作用，所以这个词被称为独词句(holophrastic sentences)。如:儿童使用“Mama”这个词可表示:“Mama is coming.”或者I saw Mama’s socks.”等。

儿童这一阶段使用的词基本上名词和动词，功能词非常罕见。

儿童倾向于使用信息最强的词来进行交际。例如，儿童会使用“milk”而不是“I”或“want”去表示“I want milk.”; 他们会使用“Daddy”，而不是“I”, “my”和“see”去表示“I see my Daddy.”

在这一阶段，儿童的语言经常发生扩展过度或扩展不足现象。例如儿童可能会使用“Daddy”不只是称呼他自己的爸爸，也称呼其他男性成年人，因为他们在外表上看上去有其共同之处，造成词的所指扩展过度。儿童可能也会使用“toy”只指某种类型的玩具，而不是所有的玩具，造成：toy”使用的扩展不足现象。

(2006，填空) Children’s one-word utterances are also called holophrastic sentences, because they can be used to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech.

2.3 The two-word stage双词句阶段

（2003，单选）It begins roughly in the second half of the child’s second year. At first each word has its own single-pitch contour being separated by a pause between the two words. Later they begin to form actual two-word sentences with clear syntactic and semantic relations. The language at this stage begins to reflect the distinction between sentence-type. Like one-word expressions, they are absent of syntactic or morphological markers.

儿童通常是在一岁半以后进入双词句阶段。这一阶段早期，儿童开始把两个词以不同的方式组合在一起来表达语义。两个词的结合有着句子一样的语音模式，两个词之间也有着明确的句法关系和语义关系。如:

Mama book.

Toy mine.

Milk me.

Sock pretty

句子的各种词序表达了各种语法关系和语义关系。如，

1) 拥有者与被拥有事物的关系：Mama book.

2) 主谓关系：Daddy go.

除此之外，双词句具有以下特征：

1）双词句缺少表示句法关系的形态形式。

2）双词句中的代词使用很罕见。

3) 同时根据表达的语境不同，双词句可以表示不同的语义关系和功能，如: Mama Book可表示以下的语义：

(1) This is Mama’s book.

(2) Mama gave me the book.

(3) Mama is reading the book.

通过使用双词句，儿童积极主动与成年人进行交际。这种交际大大有助于儿童的语言习得。

2.4 The multiword stage多词句阶段

Between two and three years old, children begin to produce longer utterances with more complex grammatical structures. The salient feature of the utterances at this stage is not the number of words, but the variation in strings of lexical morphemes. It is called telegraphic speech as functional words are missing and the “substantive”and “content”words are usually used. The sentences follow the principles of sentence formation in hierarchical constituent structures similar to the syntactic structures of the adult speech. By the age of five, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.

儿童大约在2到3岁之间语言的使用进入多词句阶段。在双词句阶段和多词句阶段，并不存在明显的三词句阶段。在多词句阶段，儿童言语的主要特征是语素使用的多样性，如：

Cathy build house.

Cat stand up table.

Daddy like this book.

He play little tune.

This shoe all wet.

Chair all broken.

I good boy today.

Me put it back.

What that?

What her name?

No sit there.

Mummy no play.

Baby no eat apple.

在早期的多词句中，典型的特征是这些言语缺少形态变化以及缺少一些表达语法的功能词或其他次要词汇范畴的词，比如言语中没有介词、冠词、动词不定试标记”to”，以及”be”动词。由于儿童在多词句阶段所说的话与电报语体非常相似，所以儿童的多词句又被称为电报式言语(telegraphic speech)。这些电报式言语不是词的无序结合，而是遵循了基本的句法规则。

在这一阶段儿童言语的词序模式与成年人的一样变化多样，几乎没有词序的错误。在多词句阶段后期，儿童言语中有了语法形态的变化，功能词的使用也不断增加。一般认为，儿童在5岁时,语言习得的绝大多数过程已完成。

3. The development of the grammatical system语法体系的发展

3.1 The development of phonology语音的发展

The emergence of articulatory skills begins around the age when children start to produce babbling sounds. Children first acquire the sounds that are found in all language of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in later stages acquire the “more difficult” sounds.

儿童语音的发展始于婴儿的咿呀学语阶段。儿童早期所习得的声音不受儿童语言环境的影响，所发出的音也不局限于某一特定的语言中。在早期发出的音包括/b/,/m/,/d/,/k/等相对简单的音，而在发音的后期，才出现发音较难的音，如/θ/。

此后受语言环境的影响，儿童语音的发展逐步朝着本族语的语音系统发展，非本族语的音逐渐消失。

3.2 The development of syntax句法的发展

Children’s early language is not only semantically based, but also makes reference to syntactic categories, such as NP and VP, and grammatical relations, such as subject and object.

儿童的早期语言不只是以语义为基础，也有着句法的范畴，如，名词短语和动词短语以及语法的关系，如主语和谓语。

在双词句阶段，儿童往往对一个对象进行命名，然后，对命名的对象进行某种陈述。无论他们的句子在形式上是多么不完整，它们都是受

句法规则的限制，体现了成年人话语中的句法规则。例如：

Milk me =Milk, [give it to] me.

Sock nice = Sock, [they are] nice.

儿童的语言发展到多词句后，屈折词素、派生词素以及介词、冠词、连词、助动词等功能词开始进人句法体系。儿童的句法发展经历了由简单到复杂的过程，其中否定句的发展很好地显示了儿童句法阶段性发展过程。

在独词句阶段，否定主要是通过单个词“no”等来构成。但是在多词句的早期阶段，否定的构成主要是在多词句句首加“no”来构成，如：No hot.

No play.

No Daddy eat all sweet.

在多词句的后期，儿童开始把“no”, “can’t”, “don’t”等通常插入句子的主语和谓语之间来构成否定，如：

He no bite you.

I can' t catch you.

3.3 The development of morphology词形的发展

Children’s early words are simply a bunch of bare stems without affixes. By the time they are going beyond the telegraphic stage, children begin to incorporate some of the inflectional morphemes which indicate the grammatical function of the nouns and verbs used. The first to appear is usually the “-ing”form. Then comes the marking of regular plurals with the “-s”form. This acquisition is often accompanied by a process of overgeneralization.

儿童早期语言中的词是没有形态变化的词。随着儿童语言能力的提高，他们的语言中开始先后出现表示各种语法功能的屈折词素，例如-ing 和表示复数的词素-s。

儿童在习得语言早期，把词的规则形式和不规则形式作为独立的词来习得的，如make, made；go, went，但是不久，儿童开始构建自己的句法规则，并过度扩展这些规则的使用，导致maked, goed, foots等的产生，而一些原先曾使用过的非规则动词等会暂时消失，如made, went等。这是儿童主动运用规则的结果，属儿童语言的词形发展过程中出现的正常现象。

到了语言习得后期，儿童才开始习得规则形式和不规则形式，才意识到句法规则的例外情况。曾经暂时消失的不规则动词，如“made”和“went”又会重新出现在他们的言语中。

3.4 The development of vocabulary and semantics词汇与语义的发展

Overgeneralization also occurs in this development. Children virtually acquired the basic fabric of their native language at the age of five or six. (***)

儿童两岁以前，由于词汇量有限，儿童在使用单词时经常扩展词义，造成词义扩展过度(overgeneralization)。如儿童可能会用单词“Mama”去指任何成年女性。

两岁半以后，儿童的词汇量开始快速上升。6岁时，儿童的词汇量大约可达7800。到8岁时，儿童的词汇量平均可达17，600到28，300之间。随着年龄的增长，儿童的话语不断变长，词义的过度扩展现象逐步缩小。

儿童在5岁或6岁时，已经基本掌握了母语，即获得运用本族语的语法知识和词汇进行以听说为主的语言交际活动的能力。儿童上学后的语言训练主要是阅读和写作的训练。

4.Second language acquisition第二语言习得

SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additional language (target language) after they have acquired their first language (L1). Some problems in L2 development do not exist in children’s L1. Very few adults seem to reach native-like proficiency in L2. 第二语言习得主要研究第一语言习得过程与第二语言习得过程的相似性和相异性，研究造成成年人学习语言困难的原因所在以及有助于第二语言习得的方式方法。

4.1 Acquisition vs. Learning习得与学习

A primary difficulty for most L2 learners can be captured in terms of a distinction between acquisition and learning, which was proposed by the American Stephen Krashen. According to him, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. Learning is a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually

obtained in school settings. It is recognized that children acquire their native language without explicit learning. A L2 is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on environment and input receipt. A rule can be learned before it is internalized (acquired), but having learned a rule does not necessarily prevent having to acquire it later.

美国语言学家Stephen Krashen区分了语言习得（acquisition）和语言学习(learning)。Krashen认为语言习得是在自然的语言环境中通过使用语言下意识地习得语言的过程，语言学习是在学校有意识地学习第二语言的过程。

儿童并不是通过刻意的学习去习得自己的母语，而第二语言通常是在非自然的环境中有意识地学来的,当然在一定的语言环境中，第二语言也可以被习得。

语言学习者可能在习得某一规则（即，规则在大脑中的内在化）之前，先学习会了这一规则，但是学会一个规则并不意谓着一定能习得这个规则。语言使用者可能学会了一个规则，但是在交际中使用这个规则时仍然会出错。下意识地习得语言和有意识地学习语言是两种不同的过程，前者有利于语言能力的发展，而后者则有利于语言知识的发展。

4.2 Transfer and interference转移与干扰

（2003，名词解释）Learners subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a L2, known as language transfer. Positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern. Otherwise, it is negative pattern known as interference, which was believed to be the major source of difficulties experienced and errors made by L2 learners.

（2006，名词解释）An interlingual contrastive procedure called Contrastive Analysis was developed to identify the areas of learning difficulty. Within the framework of Contrastive Analysis, second language learning was believed to be a matter of overcoming the differences between L1 and L2 systems. Later one study shows that only 3% of the subjects’ errors could be classified as interference errors, while 85% was development errors. Consequently, SLA is no longer viewed as a process of overcoming old speech habits and forming new ones but a process of constructing and modifying rules of communication, which is as development errors and should not be looked upon simply as a failure to learn the correct form, but as an indication of the actual acquisition process in action.

语言转移指在学习第二语言过程中，学习者自觉或不自觉地借助于本族语的语言知识来学习第二语言的现象。当本族语的模式与第二语言的模式相一致或相似时，就会发生语言的正向转移(positive transfer)，而当本族语的模式与目标语的模式不一样，这时借助于本族语的模式来学习目标语就会发生语言学习中的负向转移现象(negative transfer),负向转移又称之为干扰(interference)。

第二语言习得研究中的“对比分析”是一种母语与目标语系统的对比分析研究。通过对比分析，找出它们之间的相似形和相异性，从而预测语言学习者在目标语的学习中可能遇到的主要困难，从而编写相应的教材，制定出相应的教学计划和方法。对比分析家认为，正向转移对第二语言学习起帮助作用，而负向转移学习则对第二语言学习起干扰作用，是造成错误的主要原因,因此第二语言学习过程是不断克服两种语言体系差异的过程。

但是实践并没有支持对比分析理论的假设。通过研究，人们发现学生在学习第二语言时所犯的许多错误并不是母语干扰的结果，而是学生积极构建目标语规则的结果。因此，这些错误本身也是系统的，受规则支配的。

对学生错误的研究导致了人们对学生所犯错误的态度的变化。第二语言的习得过程不再被看成是克服旧的言语习惯，形成新的言语习惯的过程，而是一个不断构建和修正交际规则的过程。

4.3 Error analysis and the natural route of SLA development错误分析与第二语言的自然发展轨道

Through error analysis approach, it shows that L2 learners follow broadly similar routes, although minor differences exist due to variable learner factors and learning situations.

通过对语言错误的分析，错误分析学者发现，由于学习者的个人因素存在差异，以及个人学习环境存在的差异，第二语言习得者的语言发展轨迹可能与母语习得的轨迹有所不同，但是这种差异很小。在本质上，第二语言的发展有一条自然轨道，它与第一语言的自然发展轨道有着惊人的相似之处。

4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization语际语与语言僵化现象

（2002，40，名词解释；2003，填空）SLA is viewed as process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage. It is a product of L2 training, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and communicative strategies of the learner.

（2004，40，名词解释）Learner’s interlanguage fossilized some way short of target language competence while the internalized rule system contained rules that are different from those of the target language system. This fossilization is believed to be a major source of incorrect forms resistant to

further instruction (进一步学习).

语际语是由母语向目标语过渡的一种中继语，既不同于母语又不同于目标语的语言形式，它是第二语言学习者在第二语言能力发展的过程中按照自己构建的目标语体系来说或使用语言，因此语际语是体系的。

语际语，作为中继语，反映的是语言学习者的语言能力向目的语趋近的动态本质。语际语的产生是第二语言的训练方式、母语的干扰、目的语规则的扩展过度、学习和交际策略等因素造成的。

当第二语言学习者的语言形式停止向目的语系统的趋近，致使学习者在目的语的学习中达不到以目的语为母语的人的语言能力，这种现象被称为僵化。由于僵化，与目的语不同的语言规则被第二语言学习者习得。语言的僵化现象有其内在的原因和外在的原因，但是导致僵化的确切原因以及解决语言习得中的僵化问题的方法都有待于进一步研究。

4.5 The role of input语言输入的作用

第二语言习得需要学习者有着足够的目的语输入以及使用目的语的机会。得体的语言输人是决定第二语言习得成功与否的先决条件之一。至于什么是最佳输入，语言学界并没有一个统一的认识。

有些学者认为，第二语言学习者只有接受可理解的语言输入信息，才能使语言学习转变为语言习得。还有一些学者认为，语言输入不等于语言纳入(intake)。语言纳入是指已经成为语际语系统有机成分的输入。决定第二语言习得成功与否的因素还应包括语言交流和语言纳入。

4.6 The role of formal instruction正规教学的作用

课堂教学对第二语言习得的作用研究没有得出统一的研究结果，但是总的来说研究结果证明了课堂教学有助于第二语言习得。课堂教学几乎不改变第二语言习得的轨道，但是通过提供可理解的、易纳入的输入可以加速学习者第二语言习得的速度。

课堂教学对培养学生笔头能力，事先准备的口头演讲以及水平考试作用明显，从长远的角度来看，课堂教学有助于学生口头交际能力的培养。

4.7 Individual learner factors学习者的个人因素

4.7.1 The optimum age for second language acquisition学习第二语言的最佳年龄

It is early teenage as the learner’s flexibility of the language acquisition faculty has not been completely lost while one’s cognitive skills have developed considerably to facilitate the processing of linguistic features of a new language. 从年龄的角度来看，虽然学习第二语言的关键期是在青春期以前，但是这并不意味着第二语言学习者的年龄越小越好。学习第二语言的最佳时间应该是10岁左右的儿童(early teenage),他们的认知能力已经得到很大的发展，但是大脑的单侧化还没有最后完成，大脑仍然具有可塑性。

4.7.2 Motivation动机

（2004，单选；填空）Instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional, and integrative motivation when the goal is social. If the target language functions as a foreign language (used in a limited environment such as in school), the learner is likely to benefit from an integrative motivation; If it functions as a second language (primary means of communication), instrumental.

动机可分为功能性动机（instrumental motivation）和介入性动机(integrative motivation)。功能性动机是把第二语言作为一种工具来学习，比如说,学习的目的是为了找到一份更好的工作。介入性动机是一种社会动机，学习的主要目的是为了融入第二语言社区，成为第二语言社区的一员。

一般来说，目的语是一门外国语，那么介入性动机对学习者的影响相对较大。如果目的语是一门第二语言，是学习者言语社区的主要交际语言，那么功能性动机对学习者的影响较大。

4.7.3 Acculturation语言文化移入

（2001，40，名词解释）A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community. This adaptation process is called acculturation. Successful language learning is more likely when learners succeed in acculturating to the L2 society. As one social and psychological condition for successful L2, the more a person aspires to acculturate to the community of the target language, the further he will progress along the developmental continuum. 语言文化移入(accultruation)指第二语言习得者对目的语语言文化的适应过程。一种假设是如果学习者能够主动适应或接受目的语社区的文化，那么第二语言的学习成功的机率就高。学习者适应目的语社区的程度以及他与目的语社区文化保持的社会或心理的距离程度将决定学习者与目的语的接触量，从而影响学习者习得第二语言的成功率。

4.7.4 Personality个性

As a result of being frequently exposed to and interacting with the target language, learners with an extroverted personality are likely to achieve better oral fluency than otherwise.

学习者的个性有外向性和内向性之分。一种假设认为外向性性格的人擅长于和使用目的语的人进行交际，能够获得更多的输入以及更多的练习机会，因此他们比内向性性格的人在第二语言学习上更容易取得成功。研究结果表明外向性格与第二语言的整体能力之间关联性不大，但是一般认为，外向性格的人口语能力略强。

总的来说，一个理想的第二语言学习者应该是一个青少年，他有着明确的学习动机，能够适应不同的学习环境，能够充分利用机会使用目的语进行交际，愿意融入目的语文化社区。

三、本章历年试题

I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%)

10. Which of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?_______.( )

A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation

B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings

C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language

D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use

10. Basically all the following categories except ______ are always missing in the children's telegraphic speech stage.

A. the copula verb "be"

B. inflectional morphemes

C. function words

D. content words

10. In general, the __________ stage begins roughly in the second half of the child’s second year.

A. babbling

B. one-word

C. two-word

D. multiword

10. ( ) motivation occurs when the learner desires to learn a second language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language.

A. Instrumental

B. Functional

C. Integrative

D. Social

10. In general, children’s holophrastic sent ences begin .

A. in the late part of the first year or the early part of the second year

B. in the second half of the second year

C. between two and three years old

D. between four and five years old

10．In a sense, humans can be said to be biologically programmed to acquire at least one language. What is meant by this ______________view of language acquisition is that humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use.（）

A．behaviorist B．nativist C．mentalist D．empiricist

10. Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the _________system of language.

A. phonological

B. semantic

C. grammatical

D. communicative

10. The Chinese sound/d/in English interlanguage pronunciation of “dat” for “that” belongs to _______ error. ( )

A. fossilization

B. transfer

C. interference

D. overgeneralization

II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1% ×10=10%)

20. In order to acquire a second language, learners will subconsciously use their first language knowledge in learning a second language. This is know as language t________.

20. Linguists often use the term native language or mother tongue instead of first language, and _t________ language instead of second language in second language acquisition literature.

20. I is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA.

20. Although the development of a communicative system is not unique to human beings, the natural acquisition of l as a system of highly abstract rules and regulations for

creative communication is what distinguishes humans from all other animal species.

20. C speech refers to the simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitters, etc. when they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language.

20. At children’s language developm ent, one-word utterances can be used to express a concept or predication similar to a sentence in adult speech. For example, a child might use the

word “dada” to mean “Dada, come here”, “more” to mean “Give me more candy”. Those utterances can also be call ed h_________________ sentences.

20. For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires

little conscious i on the part of adults.

20. Within the framework of C_______ Analysis, second language learning was believed to be a matter of overcoming the differences between L 1 and L2 systems.

III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. If you think a statement is false, you must explain why you think so and then give the correct version. (2%×10=20%)

( ) 30. When children learn to distinguish between the sounds of their language and the sounds that are not part of the language, they can acquire any sounds in their native

language once their parents teach them.

30. ( ) Conscious knowledge of linguistic rules does ensure acquisition of the rules and therefore an immediate guidance for actual performance.

30. ( ) Instruction and correction are key factors in child language development.

30 ( ) A child born to a Chinese or English speaking family takes about the same number of years to acquire their native tongue, regardless of their general intelligence.

30. ( ) According to Behaviorist lea rning theory, children are believed to gradually assume correct forms of the language of their community when their “bad” spe ech gets corrected and when their good speech gets positively reinforced.

30. ( )A child born to a Chinese or English speaking family takes about the same number of years to acquire their native tongue, regardless of their general intelligence.

30. ( ) Some languages are more challenging to acquire as a first language.

30.( ) Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language.

IV. Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration. (3% ×10=30%)

40. acculturation

40. interlanguage

40. fossilization

40. telegraphic speech

39. contrastive analysis

40. caretaker speech

V. Directions: Answer the following questions. (10%×2=20%)

42. Explain briefly the four main individual learner factors that affect a learner’s

acquisition of a second language.

42. Discuss the different theories of child language acquisition with reference to the

behaviorist learning model and the nativist biological model.

42. Describe briefly what stages children go through in their first language acquisition.

英语 语言学 名词解释

名词解释 https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6018987033.html,nguage: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2.Design features of language(语言的区别性特征) : i.Arbitrariness:the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning=language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word(e.g.pen) and the object it refers to . ii.Duality:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level. By duality we mean that language system has two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meanings.指拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分。指语言是声音和意义双重结构组成的系统。 举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses iii.Productivity： Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality .语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences） iv.Displacement：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication. v.Cultural transmission: language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct. 3.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. 4.Psycholinguistics: It is the study of how language is acquired, understood and produced. https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6018987033.html,ngue:F. de Saussure. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.语言指语言系统的整体，这个整体相对是比较稳定的。 （abstract） 6.Parole: the realization of langue in actual use. 言语则指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中 说出的具体话语。（concrete） https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6018987033.html,petence: Chomsky. Competence is the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. 8.Performance: Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 9.Phoneme(音位）：A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is the smallest unit of sound in a language, of distinctive value, abstract. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain context. 10.Allophones(音位变体）：The non-distinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme. For example, in English, when the phoneme/p/ occurs at the beginning of words like put and pair, it is aspirated; but when /p/ occurs in words like span and spare, it is unaspirated。The aspirated and unaspirated /p/ are allophones of the same phoneme. 11.Minimal pairs(最小对立体）：Word forms which differ from each other only by one sound. For example, in English, pill and bill are a minimal pair https://www.wendangku.net/doc/6018987033.html,plementary distribution(互补分布）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment, for example, the unaspirated/p/ always occurs after /s/ while the aspirated one always occurs in other places. 13.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：stress（重音）(word stress & sentence stress), tone （音调）and intonation（语调）.

英语自考现代语言学简答题

第一章 绪论 Because there are words in every language that imitate natural sounds, such as crash, bang in English .besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary .these words cannot be made freely . Because the details of any language are not genetically transmitted ,but instead have to be taught and learned anew . it is passed on from one generation to another through teaching and learning rather than by instinct . in contrast ,animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species, so animals call system are genetically transmitted. The duality nature of language means that language is system ,which consists off two sets of structures ,or two levels ,one of sounds and the other of meanings . at the lower or the basic level ,there is the structure of sounds , which are meaningless. At the higher level ,the units can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences . Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signal by its users. The users can send message which no one else has ever sent before. Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present ,real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in far-away places . in other words language can be used to refer context removed from the immediate situation of the speakers. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar . traditional grammar is prescriptive, it is based on high written language . it sets models for language users to follow . but modern linguistics is descriptive ,its investigation are based on authentic ,and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguistics is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is correct or not. Language exists in time and changes trough time. The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study, the description of a language as it changes though time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describe a language as it is at some particular point in time ,while a diachronic study language is a historical stud ; it studies the historical development of language over a period. speech and writing are the two major media of communication . modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary , but not the written form ,because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from spoken form of language. Langue and parole are French words, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communication ,and parole refers to the realization of langue in actural use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conversation and the application of the rules. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user ’s knowledge of the rules of his language ,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication. 第二章 音系学 1. speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary ,but not the written form ,because the spoken for id prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language. the basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that the pronunciation of a vowel,

语言学 第十、十一章 练习题

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. L1 development and L2 development seem to involve the same processes. 2. The capacity to acquire one’s first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally w ell possessed with. 3. All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language. 4. Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyncratic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. 5. Humans can be said to be predisposed and biologically programmed to acquire at least one language. 6. Some languages are inferior, or superior, to other languages. 7. Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the vocabulary and the meaning of language. 8. Human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is a sufficient condition for language development. 9. Children who grow up in culture where caretaker speech is absent acquire their native language more slowly than children who are exposed to caretaker speech. 10. In mother tongue acquisition, normal children are not necessarily equally successful. 11. For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and require little conscious instruction on the part of adults. 12. The available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best. 13. Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development as they were claimed to be. 14. Imitation, plays at best a very minor role in the child’s mastery of language. 15. Observations of children in different language areas of the world reveal that the developmental stages are similar, possibly universal, whatever the nature of the input. 16. A child’s babbling seems to depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input. 17. In general, the two-w ord stage begins roughly in the second half of the child’s first year. 18. Children’s two-word expressions are absent of syntactic or morphological markers. 19. Children first acquire the sounds in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in late stages acquire the more difficult sounds. 20. Language acquisition begins at about the same time as lateralization does and is normally complete, as far as the essentials are concerned, by the time that the process of lateralization comesto an end. II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. The first language a____________ refers to the development of a first or native language. 22. According to a i__________ view of language acquisition, humans are quipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use, just as birds are biologically prewired to learn the songs of their species. 23. A caretaker speech, also called m______ or b______, is the type of modified speech typically addressed to young children. 24. B_________ learning theory suggested that a child’s verbal behaviour was conditioned through association between a stimulus and the following response. 26. The early multiword utterances of children lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories, they are often referred to as t__________ speech. 27. A___________ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. 28. The C________ Analysis was founded on the belief that it was possible, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language systems, to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make. 29. The language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA is known as i_________. 30. Learners subconsciously use their first language knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language t___________. 31. Motivation in language learning can be defined in terms of the learner’s overall goal or orientation. I_________ motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional and i________ motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.

自学考试英语语言学

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Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 语言习得 1.First language acquisition 第一语言习得 a)The biological basis of language acquisition 语言习得的生物基础 Language acquisition is a genetically determined capacity that all humans are endowed with. Human is biologically programmed to acquire at least one language. Any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly. 语言习得是全人类均具备的通过遗传而得来的能力。人生来就具备一种天赋，或一种生物机制，使他们至少能习得一种语言。 儿童只要能习得某种人类语言，它就能本能而轻松地习得任何人类语言。 b)Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 语言习得即语法规则的习得Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language. It doesn’t mean that every specific rule allowed by the grammatical system of a language must be acquired. What is actually acquired by young children are some general principle that are fundamental to the grammaticality of speech. 语言习得主要是语言的语法体系的习得。这并不意味着必须习得一种语言的语法体系的所有规则。儿童习得的是一些一般的原则，这些原则使口头语能合乎语法的基础。 c)The role of input and interaction 语言输入与交流的作用 Although human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is not a sufficient condition for language development. For language to be eventually acquired, children must be provided with an appropriate linguistic environment which they have access to language data and opportunities to interact with the input. 虽然人的语言习得的能力是由遗传决定的，但这种先天遗传并不是语言发展的充分条件。要最终习得语言必须给儿童提供适当的环境，使儿童可以接触到语言信息并有机会用输入的语言进行交流。 d)The role of instruction 语言教学的作用 For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires little conscious instruction. In fact, parents often fail in their attempt to teach children grammatical rules. 对绝大多数儿童而言，语言发展是本能进行的，几乎不需要成人刻意的传授。事实上，父母向儿童传授语法规则徒劳无益。 e)The role of correction and reinforcement 纠错与强化的作用 Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development. Reinforcement has been found to occur usually in children’s pronunciation or reporting of the truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences. 纠错和强化并不是儿童语言发展的主要因素。强化通常出现在儿童的发音和转述事实方面，而不是句子的语法方面。 f)The role of imitation 模仿的作用 Selective imitation suggests that children do not blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted way to improve their linguistic skills. The point is that imitation plays at best a very minor role in the child’s mastery of language.

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