《英语词汇学》知识点归纳教学文稿
《英语词汇学》知识
点归纳
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)
Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.
The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：
English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.
The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：
English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学)
The reason for a student to study English lexicology：
According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.
A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.
Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary
Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence
Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”
Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the
pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the
difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary
Vocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary
Classification of English Words：
By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary
By notion:content words&functional words
By origin:native words&borrowed words
The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.
The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):
1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability（相对稳定性）
3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性）
没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang（俚语） (4)Argot （暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词
语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)
Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)
Native Words and Borrowed Words
Native words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in use
Borrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)
4 Types of loan words:
1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))
2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)
3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see (from China)
4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed
Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary
The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)
The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）
The Eastern set:
（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. （2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.
(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.
(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.
The Western set:
(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.
(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.
(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.
(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：
Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.
The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:
1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.
2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections
3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.
Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):
1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)
2)semantic change旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.
3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words
Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.
Chapter 3 Word Formation I
Morpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words
Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning
Type of Morpheme(词素的分类)
（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).
（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)
Affixes can be put into two groups:
1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.
2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.
Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）
Morpheme(词素)
Bound root prefix
bound derivational
affix suffix
inflectional
Root and stem（词根和词干）
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)
1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.
（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.
1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)
2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)
3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-， mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)
4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight
5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear
6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)
7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)
8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，
etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)
9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman) (2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.
1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8719166318.html,pounding复合法（also called composition）
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems
Compounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)
Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）
（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot
（2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head
（3）verb compounds ： e.g. house + keep = housekeep
3.Conversion转类法
Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）
4.Blending拼缀法
Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN
5.Clipping截短法
Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：
1).Front clippings删节前面 (phone from telephone)
2).Back clippings删节后面 (dorm from dormitory)
3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)
4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)
6.Acronymy首字母缩写法
Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.
（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.:
BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)
（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)
7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）
Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)
8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):
Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电
功率单位）
Chapter 5 Word Meaning
The meanings of “Meaning”(“意义”的意义)
Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.
Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.
Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’
Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.
1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.
2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.
3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)
4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather
Types of meaning(词义的类别)
1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)
2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）
(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)
Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)
1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.
2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.
[4types:
（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)
（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.
（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative
（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]
Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）
Polysemy（多义关系）
Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:
1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.
2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.
Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:
1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the
centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)
2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move
gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)
3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In
concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.
Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.
4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy.
Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.
Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.
Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)
1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.
2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)
3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.
Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)
1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)
2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )
3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)
The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：
1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.
2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.
3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.
Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.
Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .
Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :
(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words which
are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ]
(2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same
in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent) Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :
1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)
2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）
3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.
4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand. Discrimination of Synonyms
(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of
meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)
(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive
colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )
(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in
simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)
Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.
Types of Antonyms:
1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)
2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.
3)relative terms（关系反义词）： this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）
Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):
1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)
2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym
3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）
4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)
The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）
1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.
2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)
3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)
Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal
Superordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.
Semantic Field(语义场)
Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.
e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’) The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language. e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)
Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变
Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both
in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.
Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)
1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)
2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]
3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble （粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]
4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的） sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]
5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.
Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)
1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):
1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.
2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.
3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.
2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.
1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier
2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast
3)analogy类推:
Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境
Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.
Two types of context（语境的种类）
1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )
2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：
1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)
2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)
The role of context(语境的作用)
1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)
1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.
2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity
如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little
2.Indication of referents(限定所指)
如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context
3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)
1)definition
2)explanation
3)example
4)synonymy
5)antonymy
6)hyponymy（上下义关系）
7)relevant details
8)word structure
Chapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语
Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.
Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）
1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）： words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.
The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.
2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.
1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced
2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed
3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.
4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeable
The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯
Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）
1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语 (white elephant累赘物)
2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）
3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）
4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）
5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）
Use of idioms（习语的使用）
1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：
1）colloquialisms（俗语）
2）slang （俚语）
3）literary expressions（书面表达）
The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.
2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)
1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：
（1）alliteration头韵法
（2）rhyme尾韵法
2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）
（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举 [scream and shout]
（2）repetition 重复[out and out]
（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置 [here and there]
3.figures of speech（修辞格）
（1）simile明喻
（2）metaphor暗喻
（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen
（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread
（5）Personification拟人法
（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)
（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of trouble
Variations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：
1.addition增加
2.deletion删除
3.replacement替换
4.position-shifting位置转移
5.dismembering分解
Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典
Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.
Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):
1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.
(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)
2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）
（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语
或是双语的
（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:
1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.
2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia
(
3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)
（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意)
（3）Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义，很少或者几乎不举例。about 50,000 entries or fewer
4.Specialized dictionaries（专用词典）
concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, idioms, pronunciation, usage in language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other subjects.
Use of the dictionaries(词典的使用)
1 read the contents page to find out quickly what information is included in the dictionary
2 read the guide to the use of the dictionary
Content of the dictionary（词典的内容）
1.spelling
2.pronunciation
3.definition
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8719166318.html,age
5.grammar
https://www.wendangku.net/doc/8719166318.html,age notes and language notes使用注释和语言注释
7.etymological information词源信息
8.supplementary matter补充事项
9.
Three good general dictionaries （3本常用字典）
1.Longman dictionary of contemporary English (LDCE) new edition(1987)《朗文当代英语词典》新版：特征①clear grammar codes ②usage notes ③language notes
2.Collins COBUILD English language dictionary (CCELD) (1987) 《科林斯合作英语词典》：特征：①definition-in full sentences ②extra column-deal with grammar information ③usage examples-to show its meanings and usages
3.A Chinese-English dictionary (revised edition) (CED)(1995)《汉英字典修订版》：首版1978年。
（1）has an addition of 800 single character entries and of 18000 multi-character entries including catchphrases, sayings and proverbs.
（2）revised some old entries
（3）keeps the previous alphabetical order of entries, which makes the dictionary easy to use
（4）boasts of the quality of the English equivalents it provides for its Chinese items.
英语词汇学教学大纲(最新完整版)
英语词汇学教学大纲(最新完整版) 英语词汇学教学大纲 英语词汇学是一门研究英语词汇的学科，旨在帮助学生了解英语词汇的构成、发展和运用。本大纲旨在帮助学生掌握英语词汇的基本概念、方法和技巧，提高他们的英语词汇水平。 一、课程目标 本课程的目标是让学生掌握英语词汇的基本概念、方法和技巧，提高他们的英语词汇水平，并能够在实际生活中运用所学知识。 二、教学内容 本课程的教学内容包括以下几个方面： 1.英语词汇的基本概念：包括词义、词性、词形等方面的基础知识。 2.英语词汇的构成：包括词根、词缀、合成词等方面的基础知识。 3.英语词汇的发展：包括新词、新义的涌现以及旧词的消亡等方面的基础知识。 4.英语词汇的运用：包括同义词、反义词、近义词等方面的基础知识。 5.英语词汇的学习方法：包括记忆、分类、联想等方面的基础知识。 三、教学方法 本课程采用多种教学方法，包括讲授、讨论、练习等，以帮助学生更好地掌握所学知识。
四、考核方式 本课程的考核方式为闭卷考试，包括选择题、填空题、翻译题和写作题等题型。 英语副词教学大纲模板 ____英语副词教学大纲____ ____课程目标____： 本课程的目标是让学生全面掌握英语副词的用法，理解它们在句子中的角色和影响，以及如何正确地使用副词来表达丰富、精确的情感和含义。 ____课程主题____： 1.副词的基本定义和用法 2.副词的分类（时间、地点、程度、方式等） 3.副词的比较级和最高级形式 4.副词的运用语境 5.副词的选用原则 ____课程结构和活动____： 本课程将采用讲座、练习、案例分析和小组讨论等多种方式进行。每周安排两次讲座，涵盖副词的不同主题；每天进行适量的练习，通过各种形式的活动让学生熟悉副词的用法；每两周进行一次案例分析，让学生在实际语境中理解和应用副词；最后，每一个月进行一次小组讨论，让学生分享学习心得和互相学习。 ____评估和学习反馈____：
英语词汇学教程期末总结
英语词汇学教程期末总结 1、 what is lexicology? Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary or lexicon of a given language. It deals not only with simple words, but also with complex and compound words. 2、 morphology is the study of the forms of words and their components. In morphology, morpheme is a basic concept. Morphemes are considered as the smallest meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of words. Semantics is often defined as the study of meaning. Semantics is usually approached from one of two perspectives: philosophical or linguistic. Etymology is the study of the whole history of words. First…second…third P2 3、 lexicography is closely related to the words in a given language. It involves the writing and compilation of dictionaries, especially dealing with the principles that underlie the process of compiling and editing dictionaries. 4、 Major features of words: 背
英语词汇学自考重点
各章重点内容串讲： Introduction 1.Lexicology（名词解释题） （1）Definition: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words（WNWD）. 本句翻译：词汇学是语言学的一个分支，它主要是研究词汇的来源以及意义（词汇学的定义）。 （2）Domain: English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. 本句翻译：它研究的是英语词汇的形态结构，同时它还研究英语词汇的语义结构、英语词汇的发展历史和英语词汇的形成与用法。 2.Methods of Study（单选题/名词解释题） （1）Two approaches There are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic. synchronic 共时法 diachronic 历时法 （2）Definition: A, synchronic From a synchronic point of view, words can be studied at a point in time. However, if we take a diachronic perspective, we will consider the word historically, looking into its origin and changes in form and meaning. 1.word（名词解释） （1）a minimal free form of a language 1）Therefore, we can say that a word is a minimal free form of a language（词是语言中的最小的自由形式） 2）that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.（词有固定的读音，固定的意义，固定的句法功能。） 2.the relationships between the sound and meaning （1）简答题 1）Sound is the physical aspect of a word. And meaning is what the sound refers to. 本句翻译：音是词的物质外壳；义是音的所指。 2）A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world, which is outside the language system. （2）单选题或填空题 arbitrary/conventional 1）there is ‘no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.（音与实际的实物和实际思想本身并没有一定的逻辑关系） 2）The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to the animal with this cluster of sounds. 3.More and more differences occur between the two.（简答题）（音和形之间的距离越拉
自考 00832 英语词汇学-笔记(根据考纲标记重点)
English Lexicology(英语词汇学) Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. The Nature and Scope of English lexicology： English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology： According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English. A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study. Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: al most arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself” Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary Vocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary Classification of English Words： By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional words By origin:native words&borrowed words
英语词汇学总结复习资料
大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。 第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary 1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound. 3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words. 5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin the English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin. 基本词汇的特点 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.
英语词汇学知识点整理
词汇期末复习（C1-C7） Chapter 1 一、Word 词的定义 (1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式） (2) a sound unity (3) a semantic unity（meaning） (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能） 二、V ocabulary词汇的定义 All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary. 一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。 词的总和构成语言的词汇。词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。 三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义 The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional. 二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的 四、Sound & Form发音和形式 (1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oral form. 自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。 (2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发音与形式不同的原因： ①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来自罗马 ②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发音改变快速 ③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同 ④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发音不断变化，书写标准化。 ⑤borrowing : words were borrowed from other languages such as Latin, Greek, French, etc.外来词 五、Classification of Words词的分类 (1)Basic & Non-basic Vocabulary ①Basic Words The basic vocabulary has the following characteristics: 基本词汇特点： ➢ 1. All national character 全民性(indispensable to all the people who speak the language). ➢ 2. Stability 稳定性（relatively stable or unchanged） ➢ 3. Productivity 多产性（form new words in combination with other roots and affixes ) ➢ 4. Polysemy 多义性 ➢ 5. Collocability 搭配性 ②Non-basic Words Non-basic vocabulary: terminology, jargon, slang, argot, dialectal words, archaisms, neologisms. 非基本词包含：专业术语、行话、俚语、黑话、方言、古语、新词。 (2)Content Words & Functional Words ①Content Words/Full words/National words： They denote clear notions. 能够表达清楚的含义 ②Functional words/Empty words/Form words： They show the relation between notions. 显示了与概念之间的关系 (3)Native Words & Borrowed Words ①Native Words： Anglo-Saxon words brought by the Germanic tribes such as Angles, Saxons and the Jutes.
英语词汇学总结
Chapter 3 Word Formation I词语结构1 3.1 Morphemes词素 1. the morpheme is ‘ the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’ 词素是“词语中最小的功能单位”。 2.Suffix：-ation：-tion, -sion, -ion. 后缀：ation 的多变体，当它们有同样的意义和语法功能时它们属于同一个后缀 3.Owing to different sound environment 因为存在不同的发生环境。 3.2 Allomorphs （语素变体）同质异晶，同质异象变体 1.Morphemes are abstract units.‘They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning’ 语素是抽象的单位,它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone: 语素是一个音素发音的形素 ①single morphs单一语素词： bird, tree, green, sad, want, desire, Most morphemes are realized by single morphs,Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.大多数语素通过单个的形素实现，语素与词相同叫做单一语素词. These morphemes coincide withe words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence.Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words. 这些语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。这种词叫做单一语素词 ②The plural morpheme复数语素： {-s} /s / after the sounds/t, p, k/ packs, cheats, shapes /-z/ after /d, b, g, l/ beds, bottles, fads /iz/ after/s, z, ?, ?, t?, d?/classes, dishes, garages, damages Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. 一些语素被按照形素在其中排列而认识，那些替换的形素被称为”语素变体”。 Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.语素变体不是随机发生的，是语音条件下可以预测的 ③zero morph零形素：deer -deer, fish-fish （There are cases where the allomorphs of the plural morpheme are unusual. It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel 某种情况是复数词素的变体不常见。他可以通过内部元音的变化来认知） ④the past tense过去式 {-ed}：1）/t/ after a verb ending with /p, k/ worked, helped 2）/d/ after vowels and sounds like /m, n, ?, l/ tried, warmed, lived , enabled 3）/id/ after /t, d/ wanted, landed affixational morphemes附加语素 This prefix : depending on the first sound of the stem to which the prefix is added.
英语词汇学知识点归纳
英语词汇学知识点归纳 英语词汇学是研究词汇的学科，主要研究词汇的形成、发展、构造和使用规律。以下是一些英语词汇学的主要知识点。 1. 词汇分类：英语词汇可以分为原生词汇和派生词汇。原生词汇是指直接来源于英语语言的词汇，而派生词汇则是通过加前缀、后缀或改变词性形成的新词。 2. 词根、前缀和后缀：许多英语单词都有共同的词根，通过添加前缀和后缀，可以构成各种派生词。例如，'un-'是一个常见的前缀，表示否定，如'unhappy'（不快乐）。 3. 同义词和反义词：同义词具有相似的意思，可以在不同的上下文中互换使用，例如'big'和'large'。反义词则是意思相反的词汇，如'hot'和'cold'。 4. 合成词：合成词是由两个或多个独立的词组合而成的词汇。例如，'sunflower'（向日葵）由'sun'（太阳）和'flower'（花）组成。 5. 词源学：词源学研究词汇的起源和演变过程。许多英语单词来自其他语言，如拉丁语、法语和希腊语。了解词源可以帮助我们理解
词汇的含义和用法。 6. 词义的变化：词汇的意义会随时间和语境的变化而变化。一些词汇可能会产生新的意义或失去原有的意义。例如，'mouse'（老鼠）最初是指一种小动物，现在也可以指计算机的输入设备。 7. 词汇的语法功能：词汇在句子中扮演不同的语法角色，如名词、动词、形容词等。了解词汇的语法功能可以帮助我们正确使用它们。 8. 语义关系：词汇之间存在各种语义关系，如同义关系、反义关系、上下位关系等。了解这些关系可以帮助我们扩展词汇量，提高语言表达能力。 9. 词汇的习得和记忆：习得和记忆词汇是学习英语的重要一部分。采用合适的记忆方法，如使用词汇卡片、词汇表等，可以帮助我们更好地掌握词汇。 以上是英语词汇学的一些主要知识点。通过深入学习这些知识，我们可以更好地理解和运用英语词汇。
英语词汇学复习提纲
英语词汇学复习提纲 Part I概念题 1.（glossary）a list of the difficult words used in a piece of writing or subject, with explanations of their meanings 2.（phrase) a group of words that form a unit within a clause 3.（expression）unclassified linguistic unit of any length: words，phrases， sentences，paragraphs，etc。 4.(diction）the choice of words used in a speech or piece of writing 5.(vocabulary) words in general known，learnt，used，etc。or a list of words， usually in alphabetical order and with explanations of their meanings 6.(lexicon) all the words and phrases in a language or a dictionary 7.(lexis) all the words in a language 8.(word）the smallest unit of spoken or written language which has meaning and can stand alone 9.(Etymology）the study of origins and development of words 10.（Lexicography) the writing and making of dictionaries 11.（Lexical semantics) the study of words and their meanings 12.(lexicology) the study of meanings and uses of words 13.（morphology) the study of how words are formed in a language 14.（phraseology) the words and phrases used in a particular profession or activity, or a particular way of putting words together to express something 15.(collocation）a group of words which "naturally” go together through common usage 16.Morpheme: the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms 17.Root: a root is the basic unchangeable part of a word，and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. 18.A ffix: a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. It can further be divided inflectional and derivational types. 19.Prefix: a derivational or an inflectional affix that can be added to the beginning of a morpheme. 20.S uffix: a derivational or inflectional affix that can be added to the end of a morpheme。 21.C ompounding /composition: a word formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. 22.D erivation/ affixation: a word—formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix or both to the base。 23.C onversion: a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word—class without the addition of an affix. 24.I nitialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳教学文稿
《英语词汇学》知识 点归纳
English Lexicology(英语词汇学) Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. The Nature and Scope of English lexicology： English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to： English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology： According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English. A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study. Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself” Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary Vocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary Classification of English Words： By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional words By origin:native words&borrowed words The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征): 1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability（相对稳定性） 3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性）
13英语词汇学教案 第10章 词的使用和理解
理论教学教案（总第 23- 24学时） 项目名称第10章词的使用和理解授课 学时 2 任务名称词的使用和理解 教学目标注意小词的特殊用法注意动词的微妙用法注意否定的使用 注意抽象词的使用 教学重点小词的特殊用法 教学难点否定的使用 教学资源PPT 教学过程设计 教学内容时间 分配 教学活 动设计 Step1: 引入 复习上次学习内容 Step2: 新课讲授 Step1：注意动词的微妙用法 一、如characterize，feature, star等一类词。 1. 如：某民族具有勤劳和勇敢的特点 the nation is characterized by industry and courage. industry and courage characterizes the nation. 2. feature:是..的特色，以..为号召物，以..为主演。 3. star:扮演主演，以..为主演。 二、如object,suspect, protest等词。 object to:反对;object that clause:提出异议 suspect of :怀疑;suspect that clause:猜想，觉得 I suspect that she is right.;protest that clause:明言assert 三、attempt, venture,volunteer等词。
attempt, venture,volunteer+to do something. attempt, venture,volunteer + noun. 翻译时需添加动词。 Step2: 注意否定的运用 一、形式否定，意义肯定 1. 反问句 2.why not？ 3. nothing like +noun, gerund没有什么比得上 4. nothing but=merely, only 5. nothing short of :简直可以说 6. cannot...too, cannot over +verb. Impossible; scarcely;Hardly; never 二、形式肯定，意义否定 Seldom; little; rarely;few;too...to;scarcely; hardly 三、双重否定 双重否定表示肯定 too...not to 双重否定表示否定 there is no reason to doubt that his statement is not true. there is no reason to doubt that his statement is true. 四、否定的强调表示法 1. not half,与其比not强，远不比。 He didn't half fear death. 他怕死怕的要命。 2. not so much as,= not even;without so much as I don't know him. indeed I have not so much as heard his name. 3.nothing like(near) as ...as:远远不像...那样... 4.nowhere near:far from, 远没有。 5.no nearer to:一个人花了很多时间做某事，但没有取得进展。 作业布置复习所学内容授课日期及 授课地点 明德楼205 第周下午 67节 课后反思表示否定的表达比较难，还需多揣摩和研究。